Showing posts with label Political Science (12th). Show all posts

Friday, March 8, 2024

Q.1;- MENTION THREE FEATURES THAT DISTINGUISH THE SOVIET

ECONOMY FROM THAT OF COUNTRIES LIKE THAT OF USA?

DISCUSS THE MAIN FEATURES OF SOVIET SYSTEM OF

GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMY.

ANS; The following three features describes that soviet economy was

basically different from U S economy;

1) The Soviet system of economy was based on planned economy .The

economy was managed on the basis of state plans for economic & social

development but in U S A means of production are mostly in private

hands & the economy of USA is controlled & guided by market forces.

2) Private property is basic element of American economy while in Soviet

economy there was no existence of private property .

3) Soviet economy is based on the principles of socialism but American

economy is based on capitalism i.e. concentration of economic power in

the hands of few & consequent exploitation of the rest.

Q2;- WHAT WERE THE FACTORS THAT FORCED GORBACHEV TO

INITIATE THE REFORMS IN USSR?

ANS;-Mikhail Gorbachev (last president of USSR) who had become

general secretary of the communist party of the Soviet Union in1985,

sought to reform the political & economic system of soviet union. The

following factors forced Gorbachev to initiate reforms in USSR.

1) Economy of USSR was not sound, though wages continued to grow,

productivity & technology fell considerably behind that of the west.

2) The Soviet system was very bureaucratic, authoritarian & citizens were

not very happy with the political system. .

3) Communist party, the government & other institutions were not

accountable to the people.

4) The USSR lagged behind the west in technology & infrastructure.

5) Russia was dominating every aspect of life & people from other regions

felt neglected & often suppressed.

6] Finally the soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 A.D unaligned (

weakened) USSR economically as well as politically.

Q3; WHAT WERE THE MAJOR CONSEQUENCES OF THE DIS-

INTEGRATION OF THE SOVIET UNION FOR COUNTRIES LIKE INDIA?

ANS; Collapse of Soviet Union had profound consequence for world politics

. Main consequences of Dis-integration of Soviet Union are as under;

1) Its major consequence was the end of cold war. It ended the atmosphere

of fear, terror, insecurity & apprehension of outbreak of nuclear war.

2) Collapse of USSR led to end of bi-polarity & emergence of uni-polarity.

3) It also led to the end of arms race & encouraged Dis-armament.

4) Collapse of USSR established the superiority of capitalist system & open

market over socialist system.

5) Collapse of USSR means emergence of new independent countries. All

the 15 union republics of USSR have become independent states. Some

of them especially the Baltic & East European states wanted to join the

European Union & NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization). The central

Asian republics were interested taking advantage of their geographical

location & thus these countries wanted close relations with Russia, USA,

China & others. Thus international system saw the emergence of many

new players (states) with their own identity.

Q4;-WHAT WAS SHOCK THERAPY? WAS THIS THE BEST WAY TO

MAKE A TRANSITION FROM COMMUNISM TO CAPITALISM?

(OR)

WHAT IS SHOCK THERAPY? ASSES ITS CONSEQUENCES ON POST

COMMUNIST REGIMES?

ANS;; With the collapse of soviet union there was collapse of communism .

It was followed by a painful process of transition from an authoritarian

socialist system to a democratic capitalist system, the model of transition in

Russia, central Asia & East Europe that was influenced by the World Bank

& International Monetary fund came to be known as shock therapy .Shock

therapy varied in intensity & speed amongst the former communist

countries but its direction & features were quite similar. Each of these

countries were required to make a total shift to a capitalist economy which

meant rooting out completely any structures evolved during the soviet

period. In simple words these countries were required to follow economic &

political system of western (capitalist) countries. The western capitalist

states now become their leaders, thus guided & controlled the development

of the region through various agencies & organizations.

Q. WAS THIS THE BEST WAY TO MAKE A TRANSITION FROM

COMMUNISM TO CAPITALISM?

This was not a best way to make a transition from communism to

capitalism. It did not lead the people into the promised utopia of mass

consumption. It brought ruin to the economies & disaster upon the people

of the entire region. In Russia, the large scale controlled industrial complex

almost collapsed. The valuable industries were undervalued & sold at

throwaway prices .The value of Russian currency (RUBBLE) declined

dramatically. The rate of inflation was so high that the people lost all their

savings. Prices were very high & it was beyond the capacity of masses.

Almost all these countries faced the problems of poverty, un-employment &

miserable conditions. The constitutions of these countries were drafted in a

hurry & the presidents (executives) were given extra ordinary powers. In

majority of these countries judiciary was not independent to protect the

rights & liberties of the citizens.

Q5; WRITE AN ESSAY FOR OR AGAINST THE FOLLOWING

PROPOSITION “With the Dis-integration of USSR India should change

its foreign policy & focus more on friendship with the US rather than

with friends like Russia?

ANS;-After the collapse of USSR (2nd world, or soviet union) many

scholars are of the view that India should change its foreign policy & focus

more on friendship with the US rather than with Russia.

Arguments in favour of Indians friendship with USA rather than with

Russia;;

1) India & USA are two biggest democratic countries of the world . Both

share a love for Human rights, liberty, equality, justice & peace.

2) When China attacked India on 20th Oct 1962 it was America which

helped India by Supplying latest arms.

3) India has set up Tarapur atomic power plant with the help of USA.

4) Both have firm faith in the notion of world peace & they stand against

terrorism.

5) US had agreed to the nuclear deal with India because both sides stood to benefit from it.

Arguments against Indians friendship with USA rather than with

Russia;;

1) In the UN, USA fully supported Pakistan, USAs attitude on Kashmir was

not in favour of India.

2) America supported Pakistan on Bangladesh issue as against the wills &

wishes of India, sends its 7th fleet in the Bay of Bengal to pressurize India.

3) When India conducted 5 nuclear tests at Pokhran in 1998 A.D.

American President ordered tough sanctions against India in retaliation for

its underground nuclear tests.

4) America is constantly pressing India to sign NPT & CTBT but India is not

ready to sign these treaties.

CONCLUSION:-to conclude we can say that India should have close &

friendly relations with U.S.A but not at the cost of Russia, because Russia

has always helped India during the hours of need.

Q.6:-WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON INDO SOVIET TREATY OF 1971?

ANS:- The indo soviet treaty known as treaty of peace, friendship & co-

operation was signed by India & USSR on 9th August 1971 at Moscow for

twenty years this treaty was the first political treaty concluded by India with

one of the superpowers. The treaty contains articles:-

1) Both the countries are desirous for maintaining & developing the present

mutual friendly relations.

2) Both the countries believe that mutual friendship & co-operation will be in

the interest of Asia & world peace, apart from the mutual benefit of both the

countries.

3) Faith in the peaceful consistence & co-operation.

4) Solution of international problems through negotiations.

Q.7:- MENTION MAIN REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE

SOVIET UNION?

ANS;

(1) DEFECTIVE LEADERSHIP:-Defective leadership was mainly

responsible for the disintegration of USSR.

2) LIBERAL POLICY OF GORBACHEV:-Due to liberal policy of

Gorbachev anti-Soviet union forces became bold & they increased their

strength.

3) Corrupt bureaucracy;-there was rampant corruption & the political

elites did not try to rectify their mistakes by allowing openness in the

government; & decentralization of authority on a vast land. To make

matters worse, the bureaucratic privileges made the people feel isolated

from the common mainstream.

4) One Party rule;- one party rule was one more reason for the collapse of

soviet union, as the communist party of soviet union (CPSU) ruled for 73

years with unaccountability people felt alienated by the stifling

administration. People were unable to correlate with the rulers & the

prevailing system.

5) Imposition of Russian language & currency on non-

Russians;-the currency & language of Russia were imposed on non-

Russian states which irritated people outside Russia it become one of the

reason for collapse of USSR. Russia was dominating every aspect of life &

people from other regions felt neglected & often suppressed.

6) USSRS invasion of Afghanistan in 1979;- Finally the soviet

invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 A.D unaligned (weakened) USSR

economically as well as politically.

Q.8:-WHAT IS MEANT BY UNIPOLARITY & BIPOLARITY?

ANS:-1} Unipolarity means dominance of one major power in the world.

Disintegration of USSR changed the world into Unipolarity.

2} Bi-polarity:-Bi-polarity means dominance of two major powers in the

world .Before the disintegration of USSR the world was bipolar (USA&

USSR) but after the disintegration of USSR the world became uni-polar.

Q.9:-WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON POST COLD WAR RELATIONS

BETWEEN INDIA & USA?

ANS;; After the end of cold war there occurred significant changes in Indo

US relations . Both the countries realized the importance of each other

they have increased co-operation in various spheres of bilateral relations,

economic, political, technological & military. The economic & political

potential of India has changed the shape of Indians economic & defense

relations with America. But after the nuclear test in 1998 USA imposed

sanctions over India. But after kargil war of 1999 USA recognized the

necessity of India having threat from neighbours. Now USA looks India as

the potential part of global surveillance that USA wants to build against

terrorism.

Q10) DISCUSS THE NATURE OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RUSSIA &

INDIA?

ANS; Dis-integration of USSR made Russia as the legal successor of

Soviet Union. Boris Yeltsin (first President of Russia) assured the Indian

Prime Minister P V Narsimha Rao that Russia will continue its relationship & cooperation

with India. In early 1992 India & Russia took first firm step to rebuilt

economic relations. Russia also decided to supply another 3 million tons of

oil to India in 1993. Russian President Boris Yeltsin visited India in Jan.

1993 & announced that Russia would support India in United Nations

Security council (UNSC) on the Kashmir issue. In 1994 Indian P.M P V

Narsimha Rao visited Russia & signed two significant declarations & nine

agreements with Russia. In the same year Russian P.M visited India &

signed eight agreements such as defense, technology & space exploration.

On 21st June 1996, India & Russia signed an accord for construction of two

1000MW light water nuclear reactors at kudan kulam in Tamil Nadu. On 15

April 2000 Russian President Vladimir Putin visited India and ratified

extradition treaty with India aimed at curbing terrorism. On 29 June 2000

India and Russia signed a number of agreements on defense. Indian P.M A

.B Vajpayee visited Russia in Nov. 2001 & signed a declaration on

international terrorism & declared that to combat terrorism is the task of

world community. On 20th Jan. 2004 India & Russia signed the historical

defense deal worth Rs 7000, Crores. During Vladimir Putins visit to India in

2004 ten agreements were signed by both the countries. During this visit

Russia supported Indias candidature for a permanent seat in UNSC &

during this visit India & Russia identified three key areas nuclear energy,

defense, trade & industry for cooperation & to give them special attention.

In Dec. 2008 Indias P.M M.M Singh & Russian President Dmitry Medvedev

signed an agreement that Russia will help India in setting up four additional

nuclear plants at kudan kulam. India and Russia signed comprehensive

civil nuclear pact during Man- Mohan Singhs visit to Russia in Dec 2009.In

Dec.2011P.M of India Dr. M M Singh visited Moscow & confirmed that India

& Russia had concluded negotiations & agreed on terms & conditions for

Russian credit for unit 3rd & 4th of the kudan kulam project. On 24 Dec 2012

Russian President Vladimir Putin paid a visit to India . on 24 Dec 2015

indias pm Narinder modi visited Russia and hold talks related to defense

and nuclear energy with his Russian counterpart Vladimir putin .

The indo-Russian strategic partnership has been built on five major

components .These are political, defense, civil nuclear energy ,counter

terrorism co-operation and space .However in recent years a sixth

component “Economic” has grown in importance setting a target for $20

billion in bilateral trade by 2015 .Bilateral trade between both the countries

in 2012 grew by 30%.The powerful IRIGC {Indo-Russian intergovernmental

commission }is the main body that conducts affairs at the governmental

level between both countries .Both are members of UN/BRICS/,G20 &

[SCO were India has observer status]

To conclude we can say India and Russia have friendly relations since

long time.

Q11; WHAT WERE THE CONSEQUENCES OF DIS-INTEGRATION OF

USSR?

WHAT WERE THE EFFECTS OF COLLAPSE OF USSR?

ANS; Effects of collapse of USSR were

(1) End of cold war;- The major effect of the collapse of the soviet union

was the end of the cold war. The ideological rivalry between communism

and capitalism came to an end.

(2) End of bi-polarity& emergence of uni-polarity;- The second major

effect of the collapse of Soviet Union was the end of bi-polarity &

emergence of unipolarity as USSR was succeeded by Russia which is too

weak to compete with USA.

(3) End of arms race;- The disintegration of USSR ended the atmosphere

of fear, tension & mistrust between the two rival cold war blocs, thus ended

armament race and encouraged disarmament .

(4) Superiority of democracy & capitalist system;- The collapse of 2nd

world led to the end of communist ideology which paved the way for the

superiority of democracy and capitalism.

(5) Emergence of new states;- The collapse of Soviet bloc led to the

emergence of many new states especially the Baltic, East European,

Balkan & Central Asian states with their own autonomous choices &

aspirations.

Q.12;- ASSES THE NEW WORLD WHICH EMERRGED AFTER THE

COLLAPSE OF USSR?

WHAT IS UNI-POLAR WORLD?

ANS;- Collapse of soviet union is the main cause for the emergence of

unipolar world. With the collapse of USSR Communist block also ended &

new political and economic system emerged in these countries. The

system of bipolarity ended. Thus with the victory over Iraq and the

disintegration of USSR the United States has appeared as the only super

power on the international stage giving birth to unipolar world.

Q.13:- EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING IN FEW SENTENCES:

{1} BALKAN STATES

{2} CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES

{3} BALTIC STATES.

ANS:- {1}Balkan states:- are those states which are bordered by Balkan

Peninsula in Eastern Europe. These are as: Albania, Bosnia, Croatia,

Herzegovina, Greece, Montenegro, Macedonia, Serbia .

{2}Central Asian countries:- Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan,

Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan, & Tajikistan.

{3} Baltic States;- are those states which are very closed & share their

borders with Baltic sea, these are the Eastern most states of Europe.

These are as Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.

Chapter 2 Alternative Centres of Economic and Political Power

February 10, 2024 Naveed Ahmad Political Science (12th) No comments

TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. Arrange the following in chronological order:

(a) China’s accession to WTO

(b) Establishment of the EEC

(d) Birth of ARF

Answer: (b) Establishment of the EEC – 1957

(d) Birth of ARF – 1994

(a) China’s accession to WTO

2. The ASEAN WAY:

(a) Reflects the lifestyle of ASEAN members.

(b) A form of interaction among ASEAN members that is informal and cooperative.

(d) The road that connects all the ASEAN members.

Answer: (b) A form of interaction among ASEAN members that is informal and cooperative.

3. Who among the following adopted an ‘open door’ policy?

(a) China (b) EU

Answer: (a) China

4. Fill in the blanks:

(a) The border conflict between China and India in 1962 was principally

over........and........region.

(b) ARF was established in the year........

(d) ...........plan influenced the establishment of the organisation for European Economic

Alternative Centres ofPower

Cooperation in 1948.

(e)........... is the organisation of ASEAN that deals with security.

Answer: (a) Arunachal Pradesh, Aksai Chin,

(b) 1994, (c) the US, (d) Marshall,

(e) Asian Regional Forum.

5. What are the objectives of establishing regional organisations?

Answer: The regional organisations are established with the following objectives:

1. To make regional development at par the fast growing global economy.

2. To accelerate economic growth through the social progress and cultural development.

3. To promote regional peace and stability based on the rule of law and the principles of United

Nations Charter.

6. How does the geographical proximity influence the formation of regional organisations?

Answer: The geographical proximity influences the formation of regional organisations

because:

1. It is influenced by almost some historical enmities and weaknesses.

2. Sometimes the similar interests come together.

3. Even fruitful areas for regional economy are also the result of geographical proximity.

7. Wha.are the components of the ASEAN Visiong020?

Ans: The com10nents of ASEAN Vision 2020 can be summed up as follows:

1. An ou.ward looking role in internatioial community.

2. To encourage negotiations over conflicts in tie region.

3. To mediate tc end the conflicts i.e. Cambodian conflict, East Timor Crisis, annual discussion

on East Asian Cooperatioi through meetings.

8. Name the pillars aid objectives of ASEAN community.

Answer: The ASEAN community established the following three pillars:

1. The ASEAN Security Community

2. The ASEAN Economic Community

3. The ASEAN Socio-cultural Community.

The objectives of ASEAN community are as follows:

1. Territorial disputes should not escalate into armed confrontations.

2. To accelerate economic growth through social progress and cultural development.

3. To promote regional peace and stability based on the rule of law and the principles of the

United Nations Charter.

4. To establish dispute settlement mechanism to resolve economic disputes.

5. To create Free Trade Areas for investments, labour and services.

9. In what ways does the present Chinese economy differ from its command economy?

Answer: The present Chinese economy has adopted the ‘open door policy’ to generate higher

productivity by investments of capital and technology. It differed from its command economy

in the following manner:

1. It broke stagnancy of command economy.

2.Command economy lagged behind the industrial production but Chinese economy

recovered it by privatisation of agriculture and industry.

3. The present Chinese economy established new trading laws and created Special Economic

Zones leading higher rise in foreign trade. During Command economy the international trade

was minimal and per capita income was very low.

10. How did the European countries resolve their Post Second World War problem? Briefly

outline the attempts that led to the formation of the European Union.

Answer: After the end of Second World War in 1945, the European States confronted the ruin

of their economies and the destruction of assumptions and structures on which Europe had

been founded. European countries resolved their Post Second World War problems in the

following manner:

1. Under the ‘Marshall Plan’ the USA provided financial help to revive European economy.

2. The US also created a new collective security structure under NATO.

3. Under the ‘Marshall Plan’ the organisation for European Economic Cooperation was

established in 1948 to extend cooperation on trade and economic issues among the Western

European States.

4. European Union was founded in 1992 for a common foreign and security policy,

cooperation on justice and home affairs and creation of a single currency. It evolved from an

economic union to political one over time.

The following attempts led to the formation of European Union:

1. The Council of Europe was established in 1949 for political cooperation.

2. The process of economic integration of European Capitalist countries led to the formation

of European Economic Community in 1957.

3. The above mentioned processes acquired a political dimension with the creation of

European Parliament.

4. The collapse of Soviet bloc put Europe on a fast track and resulted in the establishment of

European Union in 1992.

11. What makes the European Union a highly influential regional organisation?

Answer: As a supernational organisation, the European Union bears economic, political

diplomacy and military influence as a regional organisation in the following manner:

1. Economic Influence:

(а) Three times larger share in world trade than the US.

(b) Its currency Euro, can pose a threat to the dominance of the US dollar.

2. Political and Diplomatic Influences:

(a) Two members of the EU, Britain and France hold permanent seats in the Security Council to

influence the UN policies.

(b) The EU also includes various non-permanent members of the UNSC.

military force i.e. the EU’s dialogue with China on human rights and environmental degradation

is remarkable.

3. Military Influence:

(o) The EU’s combined armed fo^fees are second largest in the world.

(b) Its total expenditure on military is second to the US.

nuclear warheads.

(d) The EU is world’s second most important source of space and communications

technology.

12. The emerging economies of China and India have great potential to challenge the

unipolar world. Do you agree with the statement? Substantiate your arguments.

Answer: The Indo-China relations experience strategically organised as rising economic

powers in global politics and to play a major role in Asian economy after the end of Cold War.

It can be proved on the following grounds:

1. The new economic policies of India and China have broken their economy from stagnancy.

2. The creation of special economic zones led to a phenomenal rise in foreign trade.

3. China has become the most important destination for foreign direct investment anywhere in

the world. Hence, it has large reserves for foreign exchange to allow it to make big investment

in other countries.

4. At the global level also, India and China have adopted similar policies in World Trade

Organisation to deepen integration with the world economy to challenge unipolar world.

13. The peace and prosperity of countries lay in the establishment and strengthening of

regional economic organisations. Justify this statement.

Answer: This statement represents the ASEAN Regional Forum and the European Union,

where ASEAN Regional Forum is based on the notion not to escalate territorial disputes into

armed confrontation:

1. The ASEAN is rapidly growing as a regional organisation with the Vision 2020 including an

outward looking role in international community and to encourage negotiations over conflicts

in the region.

2. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) maintains coordination of security and foreign policy.

3. The EU has also been funded on the ground of common foreign and security policy,

cooperation on justice and home affairs.

4. The European Union has also extended cooperation while acquiring new members

especially from Soviet bloc.

14. Identify the contentious issues between China and India. How could these be resolved for

greater cooperation? Give your suggestions.

Answer: The relations with China experience friendly gestures from India as India signed

popular ‘Panchsheel’ to develop Indo-China relations in 1954 and advocated China’s

membership to the United Nations. Still, after 1957, various contentious issues arose in Indo-

China relations:

1. In 1962, military conflict over a border dispute of MacMohan Line resulted on unwarranted

claim by China which now lie in Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin region of Ladakh.

2. Differences arose from Chinese take over of Tibet in 1950 which was protested by India

against China.

3. After Panchsheel, attack by China on India in 1962, to occupy larger territories of India,

created humiliation.

4. China’s assistance to Pakistan’s nuclear programme also created differences.

5. China’s military relations with Bangladesh and Myanmar were viewed as hostile to Indian

interests.

All the above mentioned differences/ disputes could be resolved for greater cooperation-

1. Both the countries should make some more efforts to revive harmonious attitude between

themselves.

2. Both the countries should move hand-in-hand to fight against terrorism, nuclear race and

economic disparities.

3. Both the countries should develop understanding and respect.

4. Hence, both of them have signed agreements on cultural exchange and cooperation in

science and technology.

Chapter 3 South Asia in the Post - Cold War Era

February 10, 2024 Naveed Ahmad Political Science (12th) No comments

TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1. Identify the country:

(a) The struggle among pro-monarchy, pro-democracy groups and extremists created an

atmosphere of political instability.

(b) A landlocked country with multi¬party competition.

(d) In the conflict between the military and pro-democracy groups, the military has prevailed

over democracy.

(e) Centrally located and shares borders with most of the South Asian Countries.

(f) Earlier the island had the Sultans as the head of state. Now, it is a republic.

(g) Small savings and credit cooperatives in the rural areas have helped in reducing poverty.

( h ) A landlocked country with a monarchy.

Answer: (a) Nepal

(b) Bhutan

(d) Pakistan

(e) India

(f) Maldives

(g) India

(h) Nepal

2. Which among the following statements about South Asia is wrong?

(a) All the countries in South Asia are democratic.

(b) Bangladesh and India have signed an agreement on river-water sharing.

(d) The US and China play an influential role in South Asian politics.

Answer: (a) All the countries in South Asia are democratic.

3. What are some of the commonalities and differences between Bangladesh and Pakistan

in their democratic experiences?

Answer: Bangladesh has been the part of Pakistan itself. Both of these countries bear some

similarities and differences as follows:

Commonalities

1. Both Bangladesh and Pakistan were under a military rule.

2. At both the places, the struggle for democracy took place in their own way.

3. Pakistan’s administration began under the command of General Ayub Khan and gave up

due to dissatisfaction among people giving way to Yahya’s military rule and continued with the

army rule though elections were held by military rulers to give a democratic shape to their own

rule.

4. In the same way, Bangladesh drafted its own constitution to begin with democracy. Sheikh

Mujibur Rahman formed presidential setup by abolishing all the parties except Awami Legue.

But after his assassination the new military ruler Zia-ur-Rahman formed his own party and

won elections in 1979. Later on he was also assassinated and another military leader Lt. Gen.

H.M. Ershad took over. Differences

1. In Pakistan, military, clergy and land-owning aristocrats dominated socially to overthrow

elected government whereas in Bangladesh the leaders and their party members dominated

for the same.

2. Pro-military groups have become more powerful due to conflict with India in Pakistan

whereas in Bangladesh, pro-military groups are powerful due to friendship and encouragement

of India.

4. List three challenges to democracy in Nepal.

Answer: The three challenges to democracy in Nepal were the result of a triangular conflict

between-

1. the monarchist forces

2. the democrats

3. the Maoists

These challenges created massive, countrywide, pro-democracy protest in April 2006.

5. Name the principal players in the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. How do you assess the

prospects of the resolution of this conflict?

Answer: The principal players in the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka were Sinhala and Sri Lankan

Tamils.

After its independence, politics in Sri Lanka was dominated by the interests of Sinhala

community who was hostile to Tamils, who migrated from India to be settled there. Sinhalese

presumed Sri Lanka to be belonged to them only, hence no concession should be given to

Tamils. This created militant Tamil nationalism

i. e. ‘Ethnic conflict’.

Despite the revenges of internal conflict Sri Lanka has maintained democratic political system

and registered considerable economic growth and high level of human development.

6. Mention some of the recent agreements between India and Pakistan. Can we be sure that

the two countries are well in their way to a friendly relationship?

Answer: Although Indo-Pakistan relations seem to be the story of endemic conflict and

violence, there have been a series of efforts to manage tensions and build peace under the

various agreements:

1. Agreed to undertake confidence building measures to reduce the risk of war.

2. Social activists and prominent personalities have collaborated to create an atmosphere of

friendship.

3. Leaders have met at summits to better understanding.

4. Bus routes have been opened up between these two countries.

5. Trade between the two parts of Punjab has increased substantially in the last five years.

6. Visas have been given more easily. No, despite the above mentioned agreements and

initiatives, we can not be sure that both the countries are well in their way to friendship, still

some areas of conflict exist there to be sorted out,

7. Mention two areas each of cooperation and disagreement between India and Bangladesh.

Answer: Disagreement

1. Differences over the sharing of the Ganga and Brahmaputra river waters.

2. Illegal immigration to India.

3. Refusal to allow Indian troops to move through its territory.

4. Not to export natural gas to India.

Cooperation

1. Economic relations have been improved considerably within last ten years.

2. Bangladesh is the part of India’s ‘Look East’ policy to link up with southeast Asia via

Myanmar.

3. Cooperated on the issues of disaster management and environment.

4. Cooperation on identifying common threats and being more sensitive to each other’s needs.

8. How are the external powers influencing bilateral relations in South Asia? Take any one

example to illustrate your point.

Answer: The external powers influence bilateral relations in South Asia because no region

exists in the vacuum. It is influenced by outside powers and events no matter how much it

may try to insulate itself from non-regional powers:

1. China and the US remain key players in South Asian politics.

2. Sino-Indian relations have improved significantly in the last ten years, but China’s strategic

partnership with Pakistan remains a major irritant.

3. The demands of development and globalisation have brought the two Asian giants closer

and their economic ties have multiplied rapidly since 1991.

4. The US enjoys good relations with both India and Pakistan and works as a moderator in

Indo-Pak relations.

5. Economic reforms and liberal economic policies in both the countries have increased the

depth of American participation. . _

6. The large South Asian economy remains in the US and the huge size of population and

markets of the region give America an added stake in the future of regional security and peace.

9. Write a short note on the role and the limitations of SAARC as a forum for facilitating

economic cooperation among the South Asian Countries.

Answer: Role of SAARC: Role of SAARC can be identified as follows:

1. ‘South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation’ (SAARC) is a regional initiative among

South Asian states to evolve cooperation since 1985 onwards.

2. It consists of seven members to encourage mutual harmony and understanding.

3. SAARC has initiated SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Agreement) to free trade zones for

wThole south Asia for collective economic security.

4. SAARC has projected on economic development of its member states to reduce their

dependencies on the non-regional powers.

Limitations: SAARC is growing slowly due to political differences among its member states—

1. Only the conflicts led to bilateral issues as Kashmir problem between India and Pak.

2. Some of the India’s neighbours fear that India intends to dominate them by influencing their

societies and politics.

3. SAARC members are from among the developing or least developing countries which

creates insufficiency of funds.

10. India’s neighbours often think that the Indian government tries to dominate and interfere

in the domestic affairs of the smaller countries of the region. Is this a correct impression?

Answer: No, the impression is not correct because India makes efforts to manage its

neighbours beyond its size and powers which can be justified on following grounds-

1. India often feels exploited by its neighbours.

2. On the other hand, India’s neighbours fear that India wants to dominate them regionally but

India is centrally located who shares borders with other countries geographically, which

should be accepted on mutual understanding.

3. India avoids political instability in its neighbouring states so that outsiders should not take

advantage of influence in the region.

Chapter 4 International Organizations in a Unipolar World

February 10, 2024 Naveed Ahmad Political Science (12th) No comments

Q NO1;- WRITE A DETAILED NOTE ON UNITED NATIONS

ORGANISATION?

ANS:-

Origin of UNO:- the UNO was founded after the second world war. During

2nd world war many meetings, conferences and declarations by the allied

powers had laid the foundation for the UN and made preparations for final

agreement on the terms of charter. UN charter was signed by

representatives of 51 nations at san Francisco on June 26, 1945, within

three months the charter was ratified by all the permanent members of the

security council and by majority of the signatories & on October 24, 1945,

the UN formally came into existence. Antonio Gutierrez of Portugal is the

current secretary general of UNO. UNO has 193 member states.

Objectives of UNO:- There are four major objectives of united nations

organization.

{I} To save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, to maintain

international peace & security.

{II} To re-affirm faith in fundamental human rights.

{III} To establish conditions under which justice & respect for the obligations

arising from treaties & other sources of international law can be maintained.

{IV} To promote social progress & better standard of life in large freedom.

Structure of UNO:- the UN charter designated six principle organs for the

new world organization. In addition the charter allowed the Security Council

to create peace keeping forces. {UNPKF}. UN day is celebrated every year

on 24th October.

Organs of UNO:- the principal organs of UN are.

{1}General Assembly:- The UN members are represented in general

Assembly. Each state can send five alternate members and an unlimited

number of advisors. But each nation large or small has only one vote. The

general Assembly was conceived as a forum in which the worlds nations

were to be given the abroad mandate. To discuss any question or any

matter within the scope of the charter. The general Assembly supervises

the activities of the economic and social councils. The Assembly holds a

regular session every year beginning from the third Tuesday in September.

{2}Security Council:- Security Council is composed of five permanent

members{china, France, UK.USA, and Russia} and ten non-permanent

members elected by general Assembly for two years term and not eligible

for immediate re-election. Security Council is the most important and most

powerful organ of the UN. Broadly speaking the Security Council enjoys

deliberative, executive, elective, & regulative powers. Security Council can

take any measure necessary to maintain & restore international peace.

{3}Economic and social council:- It was made up of originally 18

members in 1966. The membership enlarged to, 27 in 1980 and it stood at

54. Members are elected by the general Assembly for three years term.

Economic and social council is responsible to the general Assembly and in

effect has frequently served as a committee of the Assembly on functional

matters.

{4}international court of justice:-It is the principal judicial organ of united

nations with the headquarters in the Hague, the court consists of 15 judges

known as members of the court. They are chosen on the basis of their

qualification, not on the basis of their Nationality. No two judges can be

nationals of the same state. The judges serve for a term of 09 years, with

the term of 5 judges expiring every 3rd year, They may be re-elected. The

judges of the court elect their President & Vice President for 3 years. They

may be re-elected. Cases are decided by majority vote of the participating

judges. Nine judges constitute a quorum, in case of tie, the president of the

court has a casting vote. The jurisdiction of the court covers all questions

which states refer to it & all matters provided for in the U.N Charter or in

treaties or conventions in force.

(5)Trusteeship Council;- The trusteeship council was originally a 14

nation body with its membership divided equally between administering

countries & non-administering countries. The new trusteeship system was

about to impose a minimum international control over all territories.

Trusteeship council is

In-affective since 1994 when last Trust territory Palau got independence.

(6) Secretariat ;- It is the administrative organ of the UN . The secretary

general is the head of the secretariat & the chief administrative officer of

UN & is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendations of

Security Council for a term of 5 years. Mr. António Gutierrez of Portugal is

the present secretary general OF UNO.

United Nations Secretaries-General

Secretary-generals Nationality Dates in Office

Trygve Halvdan Lie Norwegian 1946–53

Dag Hammarskjöld Swedish 1953–61

U Thank Burmese 1962–71

Kurt Wald he I'm Austrian 1972–81

Javier Pérez de Cellar Peruvian 1982–91

Boutros Boutros-Ghali Egyptian 1992–96

Kofi Annan Ghanaian 1997–2006

Ban Ki Mon South Korean 2007–17

Antonio Gutierrez Portugal 2017-

CONCLUSION;- The primary task of UNO is to maintain & promote world

peace & punish the aggressor & promote economic, social & cultural

cooperation among states . During 69 years of its existence it has done

much valuable work in this direction.

QNO2 WHAT ARE THE MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE SECURITY

COUNCIL?

ANS; Following are the main functions of Security Council;

(1) It can take any measure, necessary to maintain or restore international

peace.

(2) The Security Council has the power to discuss & investigate any

disputes & make recommendations to the member states to settle their

disputes by peaceful means.

(3) It enjoys extensive electoral powers which pertain to admission of new

members & the constitution of other organs of the United Nations (UNO)

QNO3;-AS A CITIZEN OF INDIA HOW WOULD YOU SUPPORT

INDIANS CANDIDATURE FOR THE PERMANENT MEMBERSHIP OF

THE U N SECURITY COUNCIL? JUSTIFY YOUR PROPOSAL?

ANS;-As a citizen of India, I will support Indias candidature for the

permanent membership of the Security Council. India rightly deserves a

permanent seat in the UNSC, Because it full fills all the criteria laid down by

the U N . India is 2nd most populous country, Largest democracy, regular

financial contributor to UN , & has participated in virtually all of the

initiatives of the UN. India has also played an important role in the peace

keeping efforts of the UN. If India be made a permanent Veto-Wielding

member of the UNSC it will increase countrys growing importance in world

affairs.

QNO4;-THOUGH THE UNO HAS FAILED IN PREVENTING WARS &

RELATED MISERIES, NATIONS PREFER ITS CONTINUATION. WHAT

MAKES THE UNO AN INDESPENSABLE ORGANISATION?

WHY UNO IS NECESSARY OR IMORTANT?

ANS;-UNO has failed in preventing wars, but without it the world would be

worse off. After its establishment in1945 it has done many appreciable

works, although at some fronts it has been defeated, but it does not lessen

its importance. In todays world it is hard to imagine how more than seven

billion people would live together without an Organization like U.N.O.

QNO5;-REFORMING THE UN MEANS THE RE-STRUCRTURING OF

THE SECURITY COUNCIL. DO YOU AGREE WITH THIS STATEMENT .

GIVE ARGUMENTS?

VETO POWER OF PERMANENT MEMBERS OF UNITED NATIONS

SECURITY COUNCIL SHOULD BE REPEALED. DISSCUSS?

ANS:- I fully agree with this statement that, reforming of the UN means

restructuring of the security council. In fact if we are really interested in

reforming the UN then we must reform the Security Council. The UN

Security Council is mainly responsible for promotion of world peace and

punish aggressor the Security Council consists of 15 members, five

permanent & ten non-permanent. The permanent members enjoy veto

power. The Security Council reflects the global power structure of 1945,

when many nations of the world were still under colonial rule, when the

membership of UN was very less, at present it does not represents

contemporary political realities. For more than a decade, the UN General

Assembly has debated to reform the security council but no reform has

been made due to lack of agreement among the permanent members of

the security council.

Q.6:- WRITE A DETAILED NOTE ON INDIAS ROLE IN UNITED

NATIONS ORGANIZATION?

EXAMINE THE ROLE OF INDIA IN UNITED NATIONS?

ANS:- India is one of the founding members of UNO. India has taken keen

interest in UN activities. India has performed so many functions which

helped the UNO in the fulfillment of its objectives.

{1}India adopted the policy of non-alignment and does its best to reduce

tensions between the two power blocs.

{2}India has propagated the principles of Panchsheel for maintenance of

world peace which is one of the main aim of UNO.

{3}India had always respected the resolutions of UN security council like

during Indo-Pak war of 1948 over Kashmir issue, Sino-Indian war 1962 etc.

{4}India helped UNO in bringing to an end the civil war in Korea. India

helped Indonesia {a dependent country} in the attainment of freedom.

{5}India has always raised its voice against aggressor.

{6}India has stood for general and complete disarmament within the frame

work of UN.

{7}India tries her best for the admission of communist china and

Bangladesh into the UN.

{8}India has always raised the question of restructuring of the UN Security

Council.

Q.7:- WHAT IS WORLD BANK?

ANS:- The International Bank for reconstruction & development [IBRD} or

world Bank was established in 1945 & started functioning from July 1946.

The world Bank gives loans to developing countries for economic & social

growth.

Q.8:- WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON VETO POWER?

ANS:- The term veto originated from Latin word which means I say no. The

five permanent members of the Security Council enjoys the veto power.

Veto power is a special power of permanent members by which they effect

the decisions of the Security Council. To take decision on any important

issue nine votes including five permanent members of Security Council are

required. If any permanent member of Security Council casts its vote

against the resolution, the decision cannot be taken. This practice is called

veto power.

Q.9:- WHAT ARE NGOS (NOM-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS)?

ANS:- Non-Governmental organizations means those organizations which

is not directly part of the organization of the government. NGOs mainly deal

with humanitarian issues & sustainable development. Some famous NGOs

Q.10:- WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON I.L.O & W.T.O?

ANS:-

(1) International labour organization {I.L.O} is a united nations agency

dealing with labour issues, particularly international labour standards &

decent work for all. Almost all 185 out of 193 UN members are part of the I.

L.O. In 1969 I.L.O received Nobel peace prize. Its headquarters are in

Geneva {Switzerland}. It was created in1919 as part of the treaty of

Versailles that ended world war First.

(2) World Trade organization {WTO} is an organization that intends to

supervise & liberalize international trade. The organization officially

commenced on first January 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement

replacing the General agreement on tariffs & trade {GATT} which

commenced in1948. The organization deals with regulation of Trade

between participating countries. Its headquarters are in Geneva {

Switzerland}. It has 148 members.

Q.11:- WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON INTERNATIONAL MONETARY

FUND (IMF)?

ANS:- I.M.F was established in 1945 but the fund began operations on Ist.

March 1947. The main aims of IMF are to promote international monetary

co-operation & expansion of international trades, to promote exchange

stability & avoiding competitive exchange depreciations etc. IMF has 184

members but top 10 countries have 55% of the votes.

Chapter 5 Security in Contemporary World

February 10, 2024 Naveed Ahmad Political Science (12th) No comments

Q.1:- WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRADITIOAL AND

NON-TRADITIONAL SECURITY? WHICH CATEGORY WOULD THE

CREATION AND SESTENANCE OF ALLAINCES BELONG TO?

ANS:- Traditional security:- Traditional security is mainly concerned with

the security of the state. In the traditional conception of security, the

greatest danger to a country is from military threats. In the traditional

security, the referent is the state where as in the non-traditional conception,

the referent is expanded.

NON-TRADITIONAL SECURITY:- Non-traditional security goes beyond

military threats as it includes a wide range of threats affecting the

conditions of existence. Non-traditional conception of security focuses on

the changing nature of threats to security such as terrorism, violation of

human rights, global poverty, migration, health epidemics etc.

Q.2:- WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCE IN THE THREATS THAT PEOPLE

IN THE THIRD WORLD FACE AND THOSE LIVING IN THE FIRST

WORLD FACE?

ANS:- Third world countries faced the prospect of military conflicts with the

neighboring countries. Third world countries also faced internal threats.

These feared more from their neighbours than from Soviet Union or

America. Third world states worried about threats from separatist

movements which wanted to form independent countries. First world

countries feared a military attack from each other. Just as colonial rulers

feared violence in the colonies, after independence people feared that they

might be attacked by their former colonial rulers.

Q.3:- IS TERRORISM A TRADITIONAL OR NON-TRADITIONAL

THREAT TO SECURITY?

EXPAIN THE TERM TERRORISM?

ANS:- TERRORISM:- It refers to political violence that targets civilians

deliberately and indiscriminately. At present international terrorism is a

major menace being faced by the world The classic cases of terrorism

involve hijacking plans or planting bombs in trains, cafes, markets, festivals

, places, religious places. Terrorism is a non-traditional threat to security. It

is a new threat to the lives of individuals and mankind.

Q.4:- WHAT ARE THE CHOICES AVAILABLE TO A STATE WHEN ITS

SECURITY IS THREATENED ACCORDING TO THE TRADITIONAL

SECURITY PERSPECTIVE?

ANS:- In traditional concepts of security a most threat to a countries

Security is from war. When there is a threat of war, government has three

choices to surrender, to prevent the other side from attacking by promising

to raise the costs of war to an unacceptable level, and to defend itself when

war actually breaks out so as to deny the attacking country its objectives

and to turn back or defeat the attacking forces altogether.

Q.5:- WRITE A SHORT NOTE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN

RIGHTS?

ANS:- General Assembly of United Nations Organization {UNO} on 10th of

December 1948 adopted the universal declaration of Human rights &

passed a proposal. The UN declaration of Human rights consists of a

preamble & 30 articles. The main rights mentioned in the declaration are

{a}Right to liberty & equality.

{b}Equality before law & equal protection of law.

{c}Right to move & reside in any part of the territory of the country.

{d}Right to nationality.

The UN declaration has great signification for whole humanity as it accepts

no discrimination on the basis of caste, colour, creed, language etc. This

declaration is not for any particular state or region.

Q6:- WHAT IS BALANCE OF POWER? HOW A STATE COULD

ACHIEVE THIS?

Ans: - Balance of power: - It means that there is at least a rough

equilibrium of power between various nations. The power of one group is

balanced by the other opposing group. So long as there is this type of

balance there is peace. War is the test for the existence of disequilibrium.

According to H J Morgenthau, it is an actual state of affairs in which

power is distributed among several nations with approximate equality

Techniques of Balance OF Power

The balance of power is not a natural phenomenon and requires special

efforts. The techniques and devices which contribute to its operations are

as under

{1}Alliances & Counter Alliances: - it has been traditional instrument to

strengthen ones position vis-à-vis the opponment .When a state feels that it

cannot defend itself against another big state it enters into alliance with

another weak or powerful state e.g. Tipple alliances {1882} vs. Triple

entence {1907} but they do a major role in the preservation of the balance

of power

{2}Armament and disarmament: - Military preparedness is the means of

national defense. This policy is bound to lead armament race.

Disarmament is also sometimes a weapon of balance of power. But in

practice disarmament efforts for maintaining balance have been

disappointed.

{3} Intervention and non-intervention of war: - These two techniques of

the balance of power are usually adopted as a last resort. Intervention is a

dictatorial interference in the internal affairs of another country by a

powerful nation in order to extract some specific concessions. The ultimate

form of intervention is war

Non-intervention is as a policy usually fallowed by small states and

also by those great powers which are satisfied with the political order and

can very fallow peaceful methods to preserve the balance

{4} Compensation

{5}Buffer state

{6}Partition

{7}Divide and rule

{8}Neutralization

{9} Holder of balance or the laughing third party .

Q7:- WHAT ARE THE OBJECTIVES OF MILITARY ALLIANCES? GIVE

AN EXAMPLE OF FUNCTIONING ALLIANCES WITH ITS SPECIFIC

OBJECTIVES?

Ans: - An alliance is a coalition of states defended jointly against attack or

war NATO was formed by U S A and its allies is an example of functioning

military alliance

Objectives of military alliance:- The main objectives of military alliances

are as under

(1) These alliances provide collective security to member states against

attack by big Powers

(2) These alliances increase the power of the big state who leads the

alliance.

(3) Another objective of military alliance is to maintain balance of power.

kashmirstudent2020.blogspot.com

Example of military alliances: - NATO and Warsaw pact are of examples

of military alliances. NATO was formed by USA and its allies in 1949.

Warsaw pact was formed by USSR in May 1955. Main aim of the Warsaw

pact was to counter the impact and influence of NATO.

Aims & objectives of North Atlantic treaty organization: - NATO is

based on a preamble & 14 articles. The preamble re-affirms the faith of

parties to the treaty in the purpose & principals of the UN charter. The

members are determined to safeguard their freedom etc. Its main aim was

to serve as a deterrent against a soviet attack on Europe. Its purpose was

to provide a security umbrella to the European countries.

Q8:- RAPID ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IS CAUSING A

SERIOUS THREAT TO SECURITY? DO YOU AGREE WITH THE

STATEMENT? SUBSTANTIATE YOUR AGREEMENT?

EXPLAIN ENVIRONENTAL DEGREDATION.?

Ans:- Yes we agree with the statement that rapid environmental

degradation is causing threat to security. Whatever the form of pollution is,

it certainly affects living conditions. Environmental degradation is a serious

problem of modern world, the U.N. National Research Council {NRC}

define pollution as a desirable change in characteristics of our air, land and

water that may or will harmfully affects human life or that of other desirable

species, over Industrial processes, living conditions and cultural assets or

that may or will waste or deteriorate our raw material resources. Air, water,

land & sound pollutions are creating various health problems for human

beings. For example dirty water is the worlds biggest killer & biggest

pollution problem.

Q.9:- LOOKING AT THE INDIAN SCENARIO. WHAT TYPE OF

SECURITY HAS BEEN GIVEN PRIORITY IN INDIA, TRADTIONAL OR

NON-TRADTIONAL? WHAT EXAMPLE COULD YOU CITE TO

SUBSTANTIATE THE ARGUMENT?

WRITE A DETAILED NOTE ON INDIAS SECURITY STRATEGY?

ANS: - After independence India adopted its own security policy. India has

faced traditional as well as non-traditional threats to its security. India has

faced external threats i.e. from outside borders as well as danger from

within, to its security. Main features of Indias security strategy are under.

{1} Strengthening of military power & capabilities:- India adopted the

policy of making nuclear tests to safeguard its security from outside its

borders as well as from internal threats. India conducted nuclear tests in

1974. & in 1998 successfully.

{2} Strengthening of international organizations and laws:- For the

protection of its security interests. India has strengthened international

organizations. To make UNO more effective Indian leaders have suggested

many reforms in the structure and functioning of UN.

(3) Democratic methods to deal with internal threats: - Separatist

movements in states have threatened the unity & integrity of the country.

Government of India has adopted democratic methods to deal with

separatists but not at the cost of countrys unity & integrity.

(4) Secularism: - To deal with communalism India has adopted the policy

of secularism I.e. freedom of religion or separation of religion from politics

(5) Economic and social development is an important aspect of India's

security strategy. India has been making great efforts to develop

economy in such as way so that the problems of unemployment, illiteracy,

poverty, and in-equality are solved.

(6) National security advisor:- National security advisor has been

appointed by Indian Government to

point out the short comings in security system and to give suggestions for

the improvement of security system of the country.

Q10:- EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING TERMS.

(1}SECURITY

(2) ARMS CONTROL

(3) DIS-ARMAMENT

(4) GLOBAL POVERTY

(5) HUMAN RIGHTS

(6) NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION.

Ans: - (1) Security: - In simple words “security” means freedom from

threats. But every type of threat is not a threat to security. Only those

threats that threaten the core values is a threat to security.

(2) Arms control:- It regulates the acquisition or development of nuclear

weapons LTBT-1963 , NPT-1968, SALT-(1)-1972, SALT-(2)-1979, START-

(1)-1991, START-(2)-1993, CTBT-1996 were arms control treaties in the

sense that these treaties regulated the acquisition or development of

nuclear weapons.

(3) Dis-armament:- Means elimination of all types of weapons. In actual

practice it has come to mean everything from total elimination of all the

weapons to the regulation or control of only some kind of weapons.

(4) Global poverty: - Global poverty is a great source of insecurity. In the

under-developed and poor countries population is increasing rapidly. At

present world population is about 7.046 billions. Half of the worlds

populations exist in china India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia & Nigeria.

The financial disparity is increasing between the northern & southern

countries of the world. Global poverty is affecting the security of the poor

countries for example sub-Saharan Africa etc.

CAUSES OF GLOBAL POVERTY :- The causes of global poverty include

changing trends in a country’s economy, lack of education, high divorce

rate which causes feminization of poverty, having a culture of poverty,

overpopulation, epidemic diseases such as AIDS and malaria,and

environmental problems such as lack of rainfall.

(5) Human Rights:- Human rights are those rights which are essential for

all round development of man. Human rights are commonly understood as

those rights that every human being is entitled to enjoy freely irrespective of

his {her} religion, race, caste, sex, nationality or any one of them. The

universal declaration on human rights was adopted on 10th Dec 1948. 10th

Dec. is celebrated as human rights day.

{6}National Human Rights Commission:- NHRC of India is an

autonomous public body constituted on 12 October 1993. It was given a

statutory basis by the protection of Human rights act 1993. The NHRC is

the national human rights institution responsible for the protection &

promotion of Human rights. Defined by the act as “rights relating to life,

liberty, equality & dignity of the individual guaranteed by the constitution. Its

main functions is to inquire into violations of Human rights.

Educator NK

Get Sophisticated Material Here

Friday, March 8, 2024

Political Science (12th) Textbook II

Sunday, February 11, 2024

Chapter 1 Disintegration of the "Second World" and the Collapse of Bipolarity

Saturday, February 10, 2024

Chapter 2 Alternative Centres of Economic and Political Power

Chapter 3 South Asia in the Post - Cold War Era

Chapter 4 International Organizations in a Unipolar World

Chapter 5 Security in Contemporary World

Popular Posts