History (10th) Textbook

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Chapter 1 THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

SECTION B — THE AGE OF REVOLUTION (1830–1848) AND THE
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND ITALY
-> Liberalism and nationalism became associated with revolution in many regions of
Europe such as the Italian and German states, the provinces of the Ottoman Empire,
Ireland and Poland.
-> The first upheaval took place in France, in July 1830.
-> The Greek War of Independence was another event which mobilised nationalist
feelings among the educated elite in Europe.
-> Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation. Art and poetry,
stories, music helped express and shape nationalist feelings.
-> Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of
nationalist sentiment.
-> Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
-> The 1830s saw a rise in prices, bad harvest, poverty in Europe. Besides the poor,
unemployed and starving peasants, even educated middle classes, revolted.
-> In 1848, an all-German National Assembly was voted for in Frankfurt.
-> The issue of extending political rights to women became a controversial one.
-> Conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848, but could not
restore the old order.
-> After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and
revolution.
-> In 1848, Germans tried to unite into a nation-state.

SECTION A — THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE IDEA OF A
NATION, AND MAKING OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
-> The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789.
-> The French Revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth
constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
-> The revolutionary ideas spread in Europe after the outbreak of revolutionary wars and the
rule of Napoleon.
-> In early nineteenth century Europe, national unity was allied to the ideology of
-> After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of
Conservatism, which led to repression and drove people to oppose monarchical
-> Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary, set up ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles (France)
and ‘Young Europe’ in Berne (Switzerland).
-> Mazzini was described as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’, by Metternich,
the Austrian Chancellor, who hosted the Vienna Congress.

-> Prussia took the lead under its Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. Three wars over seven
years with Austria, Denmark and France ended in victory for Prussia and a unified
Germany.
-> In January 1871, Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor at a
ceremony at Versailles.
-> Italy was fragmented, before unification it was a part of the multinational Habsburg
Empire in the north, centre under the Pope and the south under the Bourbon kings of
Spain.
-> Three Men – Giuseppe Mazzini, Chief Minister Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi played a
leading role in unifying Italy during the 1830s.
-> In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the king of united Italy.
-> In Britain, the formation of the nation state was not the result of a sudden upheaval but
was the result of a long-drawn-out process.
-> The Act of Union (1707) – united Scotland and England and “the United Kingdom of
Great Britain” was formed.
-> Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801. A new British
nation was forged.

SECTION C — VISUALISING THE NATION :
NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM
-> People and artists in the 18th and 19th centuries personified a nation.
-> In France, Marianne became the allegory of the French nation, while Germania became
the allegory of the German nation.
-> By the 1870s nationalism no longer retained its idealistic liberal democratic sentiment but
became a narrow creed with limited ends.
-> The major European powers, manipulated the nationalist aspirations of the subject
peoples in Europe to further their own imperialist aims.
-> People everywhere developed their own specific variety of nationalism.
-> The idea that societies should be organised into nation-states came to be accepted as
natural and universal.

Textbook Questions

Q.1. Write a note on Giuseppe Mazzini.
Ans. Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa in 1807. He was a member
of the secret society of the Carbonari. At the age of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for
attempting a revolution in Liguria. He founded underground societies named ‘Young Italy’ in
Marseilles and ‘Young Europe’ in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from
Poland, France, Italy and the German States.

Q.2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity
among the French people?
OR
State any three measures and practices introduced by French revolutionaries to create
a sense of collective identity among French People. [2010 (T-2)]
Ans. The steps taken to create a sense of collective identity amongst French people by the
French revolutionaries included
-> Ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasising the notion of a
united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
-> A new French flag, a tricolour.
-> A new National Assembly elected by active citizens.
-> New hymns, oaths and martyrs commemorated in the name of the nation.
-> Centralised administrative system.
-> Uniform system of weights, measures and abolition of internal customs.
-> Discouraging regional dialects and promoting French as a common language of the
nation.

Q.3. Write a note on Count Camilo de Cavour.
OR
Who was Count Camilo de Cavour? State any two of his contributions? [2011 (T-2)]
Ans. The failure of revolutionary uprisings, both in 1831 and 1848, meant that the mantle now
fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler, King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states
through war. Chief minister Cavour, who led this movement to unify the regions of Italy, was
neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the
Italian elite, he spoke French much better than he did Italian. Through a tactful diplomatic
alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the
Austrian forces in 1859.
Q.4. Write a note on the Greek War of Independence.
Ans. The Greek War of Independence mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated class in
Europe. Since the 15th century the Ottoman Empire had made Greece its territory. In 1821 the
Greeks struggled against this and a nationalist movement began. Exiled Greeks and many West
Europeans who admired ancient Greek culture supported the Greek nationalists. Poets and artists
lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its
struggle against a Muslim empire. After the war, the Treaty of Constantinople was signed in

1832. It recognised Greece as an independent nation.

Q.5. Write a note on the Frankfurt Parliament.
OR
Explain any three features of the Frankfurt parliament. [2011 (T-2)]
Ans. Middle-class professionals, businessmen, wealthy artists and artisans came together to vote
for an all-German National Assembly. They met at Frankfurt on 18 May, 1848, and 831 elected
representatives walked to take their places in the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of
St. Paul. A Constitution was drafted for a German nation which was to be headed by a monarchy,
subject to a Parliament. However, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected the offer to
head such a monarchy and opposed the elected assembly. The opposition grew stronger eroding
the Parliament. As the middle-class members in the Parliament dominated, they gave no
credence to the demands of artisans and workers and so lost their support. The troops were called
and the Assembly was also disbanded.
Q.6. Write a note on the role of women in nationalist struggles.
OR
Explain the role of women in the nationalist struggles of Europe. [2011 (T-2)]
Ans. The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal
movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women
had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political
meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied suffrage during the election of the
Assembly. When the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul, women were
admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.
Q.7. Briefly trace the process of German unification.
Ans. In the 1800s, nationalist feelings were strong in the hearts of the middle-class Germans.
They united in 1848 to create a nation-state out of the numerous German States. But the
monarchy and the military got together to repress them and they gained support from the
landowners of Prussia (the Junkers) too. Prussia soon became the leader of German unification
movement. Its Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck was the architect of the process with support
from Prussian army and Prussian bureaucracy. The unification process was completed after
Prussia won wars with Austria, Denmark and France over seven years time. In January 1871, the
Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed the German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
Q.8. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which
they were portrayed?
Ans.
-> Female allegories were invented in the 19th century.
-> In France, she was christened Marianne, underlining the idea of a people’s nation.
-> Marianne’s characteristics resembled that of Liberty and Republic, i.e. the red cap, the
tricolour and the cockade.

-> Marianne’s statues were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national
symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.
-> Marianne’s images were marked on coins and stamps.
-> Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
-> In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak
stands for heroism.
Q.9. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political,
social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
OR
What were the political, social and economic ideals supported by the liberals in
Europe? [2011 (T-2)]
Ans. The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber meaning free. The middle-class
believed in the individual’s freedom and that the law must view everyone with equality. On the
political front, liberalism denoted government by consent. Liberalism had also symbolised the
autocracy’s end and no more clerical privileges. This was followed by a constitution and
representative government through Parliament, especially after the French Revolution. 19th
century liberals focussed on the inviolability of private property.
Equality before law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage. We may recall that in
revolutionary France, which marked the first political experiment in liberal democracy, the right
to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to the property-owning men.
The Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor,
subject to the authority of fathers and husbands. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries women and non-propertied men organised opposition movements demanding equal
political rights.
In the economic sphere, freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the
movement of goods and capital was liberalism. During the nineteenth century, this was a strong
demand of the emerging middle classes.
Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange and growth by the new
commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the
unhindered movement of goods, people and capital. In 1834, a customs union or Zollverein was
formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German States. The union abolished
tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
Q.10. What changes were brought due to Napoleon’s reforms and code? What were the
reactions to these changes?
OR

What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in
the territories ruled by him?
OR
Explain any three changes which Napoleon introduced to make the administrative
system more efficient in Europe. [2011 (T-2)]
Ans. In the territories conquered by Napoleon, he introduced a number of reforms as he had done
in France. Return to monarchy had damaged democracy in France but Napoleon had introduced
revolutionary principles in administration that had changed it for the better. In 1804 the Civil
Code, also called Napoleonic Code, was introduced and it did away with all privilege based on
birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
Soon the Code spread to all territories under French control. Administration was simplified,
feudal system was abolished and serfs were freed in the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy
and Germany. In the towns, guild restrictions no longer remained. Transport and communication
systems improved. Artisans, peasants, workers and new businessmen enjoyed the new-found
freedom. Businessmen and small-scale producers learnt that uniform laws, standardised weights
and measures and a common national currency would help in trading goods and capital from one
region to another.
In the French territories, there were mixed reactions. In Holland and Switzerland, Brussels,
Mainz, Miland and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as messengers of liberty. But this
feeling soon became negative because the people realised that the new administrative method did
not go along with political freedom. Soon people detested increased taxes, censorship and forced
conscription into the French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe.
Q.11. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of
nationalism in Europe.
Ans. The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial
expansion. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation : art and poetry,
stories and music helped to express and shape nationalist feelings.
Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally became strong critics of reason and science in
their glorified forms. The Romanticists dwelt more on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
They were aiming at creating a sense of shared collective heritage and common cultural part to
serve as the basis of a nation.
German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744 – 1803), a Romantic, claimed that true
German culture was to be discovered among the common people — das volk. He claimed that
folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances held the true spirit of the nation (Volksgeist). He

encouraged collecting and recording these forms of folk culture as essential to the nation-
building process. The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore, as

the Grimm brothers (Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in 1812) did, was not just to recover an ancient
national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were
mostly illiterate. Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, national
feelings were kept alive there through music and language.
Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian
occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was
imposed everywhere. In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place but was
ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language
as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious
instruction. As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia
by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish
came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance
Q.12. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Ans.

-> The Balkan region comprised modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece,
Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro, and its
inhabitants were broadly called Slavs.
-> With a large area of Balkan region under Ottoman Empire, the spread of the ideas of
romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the breaking up of the Ottoman Empire
made the situation even more serious.
-> Ottoman Empire had not been able to become strong even after reforms and modern
methods after an effort of nearly 91 years. Gradually most of the European subject
nationalities broke away from the Ottoman Empire’s control to declare themselves
independent.
-> The claim for independence and political rights by the Balkan people was based on
nationality. They gave examples of history to prove that they had once been independent
but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers.
-> Thus the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to
win back their long lost independence.
-> Soon various Slavic nationalities were struggling to define their identity and
independence making Balkan region one having intense conflict.
-> The internal rivalries and jealousies made the Balkan states distrust and fear each other.
-> As the Balkans had become site for big power fights, the situation became even more
serious. The fights were among the European powers who fought for trade and colonies
and for naval and military powers.

-> Russia, Germany, England and Austria-Hungary wanted to gain control of the Balkan
region causing many wars which culminated in the First World War.

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Chapter 2 Nationalism in India

Textbook Questions

Explain:

(a) Why growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement.

Answer : 

(i)Nationalism is the feeling of togetherness of people in a nation. In a nation all the people experience same political , social and cultural situation.. 

 (ii) British colonisation affected people’s freedom. For people the sense of oppression and exploitation became a common bond.So, all section of the people decided to throw out the British rule and anti- colonial movement started. 

Hence we can conclude growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement. 

(b) How the First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India.

Answer:

The First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India because of the following reasons:-

i) Due to war there was high defence expenditures this led to high custom duties, increase in taxes caused widespread anger among the common people. 

ii) There was forceful recruitment of British Army in villages. 

iii) Price rise during the war years (1914-1919)  created extrem hardship for the common people. 

(c) Why Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act.

Answer:

Indian were outraged by the Rowlatt Act because this act empowered the government to arrest  anybody and imprison  without trial for two years. 

This also enabled the government to suspend the right to ‘Habeas Corpus'( a writ requiring a person to be brought before a court). 

It was the first time when the Indians Unitedly opposed the Britishers. 

(d) Why Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Answer:

Peace and Non-violence  were two Noble weapons taken by Mahatma Gandhi to conduct the Non-Cooperation Movement. 

In  February 1922 at Chauri Chaura, in Uttar Pradesh where the violent people burnt a police station and 22-23 policemen burnt and died. 

Gandhiji disappointed with this and decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation movement. He felt satyagrahis needed to be properly trained. 

Question 2. What is meant by the idea of satyagraha?

Answer:

i)By the idea of Satyagrah we understand , it is a method of protest based on truth and non-violence. Or we can say Satyagrah is a method of peaceful agitation . 

ii) It was introduced by Mahatma Gandhi and first applied in 1916 in Champaran district of Bihar to help the peasant against plantation owners. 

iii) Then it expanded it wings to Kheda district of Gujarat in support of peasant in 1917.

iv) Ahmedabad cotton Mill workers also organised satyagrah in 1918.

3. Write a newspaper report on

(a) The Jalianwala Bagh Massacre

(b) The Simon Commission

Answer:

The Jalianwala Bagh massacre

Jalianwala Bagh is a place in Amritsar (Punjab). On 13th April 1919 , people from many surrounding villages gathered there to celebrate Baisakhi fair. 

Apart from the people few protesters also there to discuss about the Rowlatt Act, a peaceful assembly was going on. Suddenly General Dyre with his troops entered the garden and closed all the entrance doors. Without giving any warning to the people, general Dyre ordered his soldiers to fire at people. In the firing, many innocent people including women and children died and many became wounded. 

This day of 13th April 1919 was a Black day in the History of India. The main intention of general Dyre behind this incident was to terrorises the satyagrahis. 

(b) The Simon Commission

The British government declared the formation of a commission to look into the working of the Government of India in 1919. As per the chairman of the commission it came to known as Simon Commission. 

It was a Matter of great regret that the Commission which was formed to prepare the ground for establishing a responsible government in India was an all white Commission. Not a single Indian was considered fir to become the member of the commission. 

The commission arrived at Bombay on 7 February 1928, as no Indian was there so Indian leaders greeted with the slogan of ” Simon go Back”. Both Congress and Muslim league unitedly protested against it.

 Question 4: Compare the images of Bharat Mata in this chapter with the image of Germania in Chapter 1.

Answer:

Bharat Mata:

i.  Bharat Mata represents the Indian Nation. 

ii. It is painted by Abanindranath Tagore in 1905.

iii. In the image of Bharat Mata we find Mata Holding Trishul and standing beside a lion and an elephant – symbols of power and authority. 

iv. The image of Bharat Mata is proud of all Indians. 

Germania

i. Germania represents for German nation. 

ii. Philipp Veit painted the image of Germania in  1834 to 1836 for the first time. 

iii. Germania as a female figure is standing against a background of the tricolour fabric of the national flag. She is wearing a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

Question 1. List all the different social groups which joined the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921. Then choose any three and write about their hopes and struggles to show why they joined the movement.

Answer: 

The social groups which joined the Non-cooperation Movement of 1921 were- the Middle class people in the town consists of Teachers, Students, Lawyers, Shopkeepers, Farmers, Peasant and Tribal people, Plantation workers etc. 

Amongst them we will discuss  in details about the hopes and struggles of  Business class people, Peasants and Tribal people and Plantation workers. 

Business class people:

In many places the Traders refused to trade in foreign goods. The important of foreign clothes reduced between 1922 and 1922.

Peasants and tribal people:

 In various places peasants and tribal people launched this movement against the landlords and Talukdars. For them Swaraj meant that they would not be required to pay land dues i.e land revenue the land they were cultivating would be distributed among them. 

Plantation workers:

Plantation workers participated in the movement with the hope that they would be free to move out of the restricted place in which they had been enclosed. 

Question 2. Discuss the Salt March to make clear why it was an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism.

Answer:

The salt March was an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism because:

i. It was done in revolt against a commodity- salt used by all categories of people whether rich or poor. 

ii. The tax on salt and the monopoly over it’s manufacturing was sign of oppression of British rule. 

iii. The salt March was effective also because Gandhiji met a large number of  commoners during the march and taught them the true meaning of Swaraj and non-violence. 

iv. On 6th April, 1930  Gandhi along with his followers violated salt law by producing salt from sea water. It was a direct challenge to British rule in India. 

v. It was a clear indication that people will not co-operate with unjustified colonial laws. 

Question 3. Imagine you are a woman participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Explain what the experience meant to your life.

Answer:

Being a woman I am very much happy to participate in Civil disobedience movement. In this process I got the opportunity to meet with Gandhi. I heard Gandhiji’s speaking and inspired by him I also offered satyagraha, picketed liquor shops and shops selling foreign clothes. 

   I felt empowered by these activities and I am also very proud of my other women Co-workers. The experience has made me realise that women also have an important role to play in realising our freedom. 

Question 4. Why did political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates?

Answer:

The political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates because

i.The political leaders belonged to different classes and communities of the Indian society which were having difference in opinions. 

ii. Gandhi had an opinion that having a separate electorates would slow down the freedom movement and also adversely affect the unity of the country. 

iii. The Muslim leaders thought that their interest could only be protected in a Muslim state, and in a Hindu majority state they would be at the mercy of the Hindus. 

iv. Dr. BR Ambedkar, the leader of the depressed classes, was in favour of separate electorates for his community. 

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Chapter 3 The Making of a Global World

Textbook Questions

1. Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which took place before the seventeenth century, choosing one example from Asia and one from the Americas.
   Answer: Examples of various types of global exchanges that occurred prior to the seventeenth century include:
   The silk routes are an excellent example of cross-cultural trade and global connectivity.
   Historians have identified several silk routes, both overland and by sea, that connect Asia to Europe and northern Africa.
   These trade routes carried Chinese pottery, textiles, and spices from India and Southeast Asia. In exchange, precious metals such as gold and silver were transported from Europe to Asia.’
   Many of our foodstuffs, such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, and chilies, originated with America’s first inhabitants, the American Indians. America was widely available in food and minerals. After Christopher Columbus accidentally discovered America, common foods such as potatoes, tomatoes, chilies, soya, maize, groundnuts, and so on made their way to Europe and then Asia.
2. Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonization of the Americas.
   Answer: The pre-modern world’s global spread of disease helped in the colonization of the Americas. The reason for this was that Native Americans were not immune to the diseases brought by Europeans.  For millions of years prior to the discovery of America, it had been cut off from the rest of the world.  Europeans were immune to the effects of diseases like smallpox, Because of centuries of exposure, but native Americans had no such immunity because they were isolated from diseases native to the old world.
3. Write a note to explain the effects of the following:
   a) The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws.
   b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa.
   c) The death of men of working age in Europe because of the World War.
   d) The Great Depression on the Indian economy.
   e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.
   Answer:
   The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws resulted in an influx of cheaper crops from America and Australia. Agriculture in the United Kingdom was unable to compete with imports. Many English farmers abandoned their farms and moved to towns and cities. Some went abroad. This indirectly resulted in global agriculture and rapid urbanization, both of which are required for industrial growth.
   Rinderpest (a rapidly spreading cattle plague disease) arrived in Africa in the late 1880s. It had a horrific impact on people’s livelihoods and the local economy. It killed roughly 90% of the cattle. It was spread by infected cattle imported from British Asia to feed Italian troops invading Eritrea in East Africa. Taking advantage of this situation, colonizing nations conquered and subdued Africa by monopolizing scarce cattle resources in order to force Africans into the labour market. Due to the loss of their livelihood due to the effects of Rinderpest, Africans were forced to work for a wage.
   The death of men of working age in Europe as a result of the World War reduced the able-bodied workforce in Europe; as a result, women stepped in to do jobs that previously only men were expected to do. It increased women’s roles, resulting in a demand for equal status in society. It enhanced the feminist movement.
   In the nineteenth century, colonial India had become an exporter of agricultural goods and an importer of manufactured goods. As international prices fell, so did Indian prices. Between 1928 and 1934, wheat prices in India fell by half. The Great Depression resulted in a loss of revenue for Indian farmers as export prices fell dramatically. As  the government did not reduce taxes, peasant indebtedness increased throughout India.
   Wages in Asian countries were relatively low. As a result, they became attractive investment destinations for foreign MNCs. Because of the relocation of manufacturing to Asian countries, Asian economies expanded significantly and employment increased. It boosted global trade and increased capital inflows into Asian countries
4. Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability.
   Answer:

A faster and safer deliveryof the foods to the markets was made possible by improved transportation infrastructure. Food could be transported inexpensively and rapidly from distant farms to final markets due to faster rails, lighter carriages, and larger ships.
Perishable items could be shipped across large distances aboard refrigerated ships. Additionally, frozen meat from America and Australia was shipped to Europe. This brought down European meat prices and lowered transportation expenses.

5. What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?

Answer: The Bretton Woods Agreement established a system for establishing a fixed currency exchange rate using gold as the universal standard. The Bretton Woods Agreement was signed in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA, by the world powers. The agreement, which involved representatives from 44 countries, resulted in the establishment of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.
According to the agreement, currencies would be pegged Western industrial powers were given decision-making authority. The United States was granted veto power over key IMF and World Bank decisions. Fixed exchange rates were the foundation of the Bretton Woods system. The Bretton Woods system ushered in an era of unprecedented trade and income growth for the Western industrial nations and Japan.

6. Imagine that you are an indentured Indian laborer in the Caribbean. Drawing from the details in this chapter, write a letter to your family describing your life and feelings.
   Answer: Self-explanatory. Answer the question in your own words.
7. Explain the three types of movements or flows within the international economic exchange. Find one example of each type of flow that involved India and Indians, and write a short account of it.
   Answer: Within the international economic exchange, there are three types of movements or flows:
   1)Trade Flow
   2)Human Capital Flows
   3)Capital Flows
   1)Trade Flow: Since ancient times, India has been involved in trade relations. In the pre-modern world, India was a trade hub, exporting textiles and spices in exchange for gold and silver from Europe.
   2)Human Capital Flows: Thousands of Indian labourers went to work on plantations, mines, and road and railway construction projects all over the world in the nineteenth century. The labourers’ living conditions were harsh, and they had few legal rights. Indentured labourers were hired under contracts that guaranteed their return to India after five years of service on the plantation.
   3)Capital Flows: Britain borrowed a lot from the United States to finance the World War. Because India was under British rule, the effects of these loan debts were felt there as well. The stock exchanges crashed in 1929, causing panic among investors and depositors who lost money and began to accumulate wealth. The British government raised taxes and interest rates while lowering the prices of goods purchased from the colony. This had a significant impact on the Indian economy.
8. Explain the causes of the Great Depression.
   Answer: The Great Depression was caused by a number of factors, which are listed below:
   Bank failure: The withdrawal of US loans had a negative impact on the money investment systems. In Europe, it resulted in the failure of the majority of the major banks. Some of the banks were listed on the stock exchange when the market crashed in 1929. It caused investors and depositors to panic. They stopped investing and depositing.
   Overproduction in agriculture was a major issue. As a result, agricultural prices have dropped. Agricultural income fell as prices fell. This increased the market’s volume of goods. Due to a lack of buyers, farm produce began to rot.
   In the 1920s, economic growth in the United States created a cycle of enhanced employment and income which results in increased consumption and demand. More investment and employment created speculation tendencies, which led to the Great Depression of 1929 until the mid-1930s.
9. Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?
   Answer: A new International Economic Order was demanded by the G-77 group of developing nations NIEO). They described the NIEO as a system that would offer them full sovereignty over their natural resources, more equitable raw material prices, and better access for their produced commodities to markets in the industrialized nations.

The United Nations Group of 77 (G77) is an alliance of 134 developing nations created to advance the economic interests of all of its members. The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank were created with the express purpose of serving the financial requirements of primarily industrialized and developed nations, and the G-77 was a response to these organizations’ actions…

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Chapter 4: The Age of Industrialisation

Textbook Questions

Write in Brief

1. Explain the following:
(a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny.
(b) In the seventeenth century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans within the villages.
(c) The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century.
(d) The East India Company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India.

Answer:

(a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny because:

It speeded up the spinning process and reduced labour demand. With the Spinning Jenny only one worker was enough to set a number of spindles in motion by turning one single wheel and could spin several threads at the same time.

• Women workers in Britain had survived on hand spinning.
• The new machine caused a valid fear of unemployment among women working in the woollen industry.

(b) In the seventeenth century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans within the villages because:

• The demand for goods increased with the expansion of world trade. The acquisition of colonies was also responsible for the increase in demand. The town producers failed to produce the required quantity.

• The trade and commerce guilds were very powerful. They controlled the market, raw materials, employees, and also production of goods in the towns. This created problem for merchants who wanted to increase production by employing more men.
• The rulers granted different guilds the monopoly right to produce and trade in specific products. It was therefore difficult for new merchants to set up business in towns. So they turned to the countryside and began employing peasants and artisans within the villages.

(c) The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century because

• The European companies gradually gained power in trade with India.
• They secured many concessions from local courts as well as the monopoly rights to trade.
• This led to a decline of the old ports of Surat and Hoogly from where local merchants had operated. Exports from these ports fell abruptly and local banks here went bankrupt.

(d) The East India Company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India to:

• eliminate the existence of traders and brokers and establish a direct control over the weavers.
• ensure regular supply of fine silk and cotton textiles.
• prevent weavers from dealing with other buyers by means of advances and control. In this manner, weavers who took loans and fees in advance were obligated to the British.

2. Write True or False against each statement:

(a) At the end of the nineteenth century, 80 per cent of the total workforce in Europe was employed in the technologically advanced industrial sector.

(b) The international market for fine textiles was dominated by India till the eighteenth century.

(c) The American Civil War resulted in the reduction of cotton exports from India.

(d) The introduction of the fly shuttle enabled handloom workers to improve their productivity.

Answer:

(a) False

(b) True

(c) False

(d) True

3. Explain what is meant by proto-industrialisation.

Answer: The early phase of industrialisation in which the large-scale production was carried out for international market was known as proto-industrialisation. This type of industrialization was not based on the factory system but on decentralised units.

Discuss

1. Why did some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe prefer hand labour over machines?

Answer: Some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe preferred hand labour over machines because:

• Machines were expensive and their repair was also costly.
• They were not as effective as claimed by their inventors and manufacturers.
• As the poor peasants and migrants moved to cities in large numbers in search of jobs, the supply of workers was more than the demand due to which labour was available at low wages.
• In seasonal industries only seasonal labour was required.
• The market demanded goods with variety of designs, colours and specific shapes which could not be fulfilled by using machines. Intricate designs and shapes could be produced only with hand labour.
• In Victorian age, the aristocrats and other upper class people preferred articles made by hand only.

2. How did the East India Company procure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from Indian weavers?

Answer: The English East India Company used different means to procure silk and cotton from the Indian weavers:

• They appointed paid supervisors called Gomasthas to develop a system of management. They also collected supplies and examined cloth quality of the weavers.
• The existing traders and brokers were eliminated to establish a more direct control over the weavers.
• The company weavers were prevented from dealing with other buyers through a system of advances and loans. Once an order was placed, the weavers were given loans to purchase the raw material for their production.
• At many places weaver were often beaten and flogged for delays in supply.

3. Imagine that you have been asked to write an article for an encyclopaedia on Britain and the history of cotton. Write your piece using information from the entire chapter.

Answer: Write this answer in your own words. You may take help form the following explanation:

Britain and the History of Cotton

• During the 17^th and 18^th centuries, merchants used to trade with rural people in textile production.
• In the first phase, clothier used to buy wool from a wool stapler, carry it to the spinners, and then, take the yarn to the weavers. Lastly, it was take to the fuller and dyers for further levels of production.
• London was the finishing centre for these goods.
• This phase in British manufacturing history is known as proto-industrialisation. In this phase, factories were not an essential part of industry.
• Cotton was the first symbol of the new era of factories. Its production increased rapidly in the late nineteenth century.
• With the invention of the cotton mill, new machines, and better management, Imports of raw cotton increased from 2.5 million pounds in 1760 to 22 million pounds in 1787.
• Till 1840, cotton was the leading sector in the first stage of industrialisation.
  
  Most of the inventions in the textile industry led to the unemployment.
• Women in the woollen industry opposed and demanded to destroy it because it was taking over their place in the labour market.
  
  Before such technological developments, Britain imported silk and cotton goods from India in vast numbers.
• The East India Company exploited the weavers and textile industry in India after attaining political power in the country.
• Later, Manchester became the hub of cotton production and India was turned into the major buyer of British cotton goods.
• During the First World War, British factories were busy in fulfilling the war essentials. This, once again, resulted in high demand for Indian textiles. Thus, the history of cotton in Britain is all about such fluctuations of demand and supply.

4. Why did industrial production in India increase during the First World War?

Answer: Industrial production in India increased during the First World War due to following reasons:

• British industries became busy in producing and supplying the war-essentials. Hence, they stopped exporting British goods or clothes for colonial markets like that in India.
• With the decline of imports suddenly, it was a good opportunity for Indian industries to produce enough goods to meet the demand of home market.
• As the war prolonged, Indian factories were called upon to supply war needs such as jute bags, cloth for the army uniforms, tents and leather boots, etc.
• To meet the increased demands of variety of products, new factories were set up and old ones were made to increased their production.
• Many new workers were employed. Thus, the First World War gave a boost to Indian industries.

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Chapter 5: Print Culture and the Modern World

Textbook Questions

Q 1.  Give reasons for the following-

a) Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295.

Ans. a)
Italian traveler Marco Polo traveled to China and studied the art of woodblock printing. He carried this information back with him when he left Italy in 1295. This information gradually migrated from Italy and spread to the rest of Europe.

b) Martin Luther was in favor of print and spoke out in praise of it.

Ans. b)
Martin Luther, a Christian reformer, composed ninety-five theses in 1517 that protested the Catholic Church’s immoral practices and pinned them on the Wittenberg church door. The printing of thousands of copies of Luther’s theses quickly diffused his views across society. The force of printing sparked the Reformation movement and eventually gave rise to Protestantism, which profoundly touched Martin Luther.

c) The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books in the mid-sixteenth century.

Ans. c)
From the middle of the 16th century onward, the Roman Catholic Church encountered numerous dissenters. There are several books that people have written that offer their unique interpretations of God and the universe. As a result, the church forbade such books and kept a list of them. It was known as the Index of Prohibited Books.

d) Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of association.

Ans. d)
Gandhi ji believed that liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of association were the three most effective means of forming and expressing public opinion. Thus, he said that the struggle for Swaraj was a struggle for the liberty of speech, press, and freedom of association.

Q 2.  Write short notes to show what you know about.

a)  The Gutenberg Press

Ans. a)
The earliest printing press in Europe was the Gutenberg Press. It was created by Strasbourg-born Johannes Gutenberg. He had knowledge of and expertise in running olive and wine presses because he was raised on an enormous agricultural estate. The Bible was the first book produced using the printing press, which he created in the year 1448.

b) Erasmus’s idea of the printed book

Ans b)
The printing of books alarmed the Latin scholar Erasmus, who feared that it would encourage the spread of books with rebellious views. He believed that while certain books may provide important knowledge, the bulk of literature might only be useless or irrational, serving as a vehicle for disseminating controversial or irreligious notions that would ultimately cause a revolt.

c) The Vernacular Press Act

Ans c)
The 1857 revolt prompted the government to restrict journalistic freedom. Based on the Irish Press Laws, the Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878. It gave the government broad authority to restrict articles and commentaries published in the local press. The local newspapers issued in various regions began to be regularly monitored by the government. When a story was deemed to be seditious, the newspapers received a warning; if the warning was disregarded, the press and printing equipment were placed under seizure.

Q 3. What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth-century India mean to-

a) Women

Ans a)
Women gained the same prominence as authors and readers. Reading habits among them improved. Women developed a keen interest in reading and writing as literacy levels rose. The significance of women’s education began to be emphasized in several journals. For women specifically, a lot of newspapers and books were released. Women had some freedom to study and form their own opinions on a variety of topics thanks to the print culture, especially when it came to matters specifically affecting women.

b) The poor

Ans b)
Due to the affordable prices of books, impoverished people benefited from the growth of print culture. The release of inexpensive books boosted the number of readers among them. Beginning in the early 19th century, public libraries were also established, increasing everyone’s access to the literature necessary for education. The social reformers inspired and encouraged others, including industrial employees, who established libraries, and some even published books.

c) Reformers

Ans c)
The most effective way for Indian reformers of the 19th century to spread their ideas and draw attention to ethical situations was through print culture. They started printing numerous vernacular, English, and Hindi newspapers and literature so they could inform the general people of the nation about their views on widow immolation, child marriage, monotheism, the Brahmanical priesthood, and idolatry. In this way, the development of print culture in the 19th century gave them a platform to challenge religious beliefs and disseminate contemporary social and political ideologies among speakers of many national languages.
 

Discuss.

Q 1. Why did some people in eighteenth-century Europe think that print culture would bring enlightenment and end despotism?

Ans 1)
Many people in 18th-century Europe believed that print culture has the ability to spread enlightenment and put an end to despotism. This would promote literacy as well as understanding among all social classes. Social reformers like Louise, Sebastian Mercier, and Martin Luther believed that print culture is the most potent driver of development and public opinion and that, as a result, it will undoubtedly bring enlightenment and put an end to despotism.

Q 2. Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example from Europe and one from India.

Ans 2)
Because of the widespread adoption of reading among ordinary people, certain people, particularly from the upper class, were concerned about the impact of widely accessible printed books. They were concerned that they might lose their authority or position. Some individuals worried that it might fuel the rise of insurrections and irrational ideas.

Through the Index of Prohibited Publications, the Roman Catholic Church attempted to restrict printed publications throughout Europe.
The Vernacular Press Act in India, however, placed limits on the Indian press and a number of local publications.

Q 3. What were the effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in nineteenth-century India?

Ans 3)
Printed literature, particularly for enjoyment, started to reach even the impoverished in India in the 19th century as literacy rates rose. Publishers began putting forth inexpensive, compact books. At intersections, these novels were for sale. Rich individuals and Christian missionaries founded public libraries. Folklore and stories might be heard by those who couldn’t read.

Q 4.  Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.

Ans 4) 
In India, the development of nationalism was greatly aided by print culture in the following ways:

1. The oppressive practices of colonial control were documented through the vernacular press.
2. Nationalist ideals that wanted journalistic freedom were encouraged by government misrule and its initiative to restrict it.
3. The newspapers covertly propagated nationalist sentiments and revolutionary notions.
4. The print culture contributed to the people’s education, which allowed them to become gradually more open to the reformist and nationalist ideologies of the various Indian leaders.

It is clear how print culture contributed to India’s growing nationalism in these ways.

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Chapter 6 Post Independence Era:- J&K On The Path of Modernisation.

1.Match the following:

a. Naya Kashmir Manifesto:- Economic Reforms in Kashmir
b. Mukraris:- Custodian grants
c. Jagirs:- Land grants in lieu of services
d. Big Landed Estates Abolition Act ;-Magna Carta of Peasant’s Rights

2.Fill in the blanks:
a. Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah was the most popular leader of Kashmir during the early Post-Independence period.
b. Bakshi Ghlam Muhammad was appointed as the second Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir.
c. Kwang Posh was the literary journal of Cultural Congress.
d. In 1955, G.M. Sadiq as the Education Minister under Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad drafted the Education Policy of the state.
e. Dina Nath Nadim was the most celebrated progressive Kashmiri poet who wrote ‘Bomber Te Yemberzal’.

3.State whether True or False:
a. The Naya Kashmir Manifesto had a heavy socialistic tune. (F )
b. In 1957, Lalla Rookh Publications was disbanded and incorporated back to the Information Department. (T)

c.The first Prime Minister of Kashmir was Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad. ( F )

d. The Jammu and Kashmir University was established in the year 1948. ( T )

e. Banihal Tunnel was constructed in the year 1960.(F)Right in Breif:

a. Briefly discuss the major economic reforms introduced by the post-1947 Governments in the State?

The major economic reforms introduced by the post-1947 governments in the state are
A) Land Reforms: Jagirs, Muafis, Mukararies and abatement in land revenue to Chakdars were abolished. “Grow more food scheme” was launched. Important land reform acts such as Tenancy Amendment Act of 1948 , The Distressed Debtors Relief Act of 1950 and The Big Landed Estates Abolition Act , 1950 were passed.
B) Development of irrigation projects : The development of irrigation was given priority during the first three five year plan. Concrete steps were taken to tap water resources for irrigational purposes. A separate department of irrigation was established for this purpose.
C) Era of cooperatives. Greater emphasis was put on the cooperative moment with the object of bringing the entire village life into its fold.
D) Construction of roads and buildings:- The govt. constructed a no. of government/public buildings and also established a vast network of roads including Banihal tunnel within the state.
E) Promotion of industrial sector:- In order to promote industrial sector the govt. established industrial estates at Gandhi Nagar (Jammu), Barzulla (Srinagar) and Anantnag at a total capital outlay of 5.26 million.
F) Boost to tourism and Indian film industry: The government lunched “Kashmir Chalo Campaign” and also took some important steps to give boost to tourism and film industry in the region.

b. What was the impact of land reforms on rural society?
The land reforms had quite positive impact on rural society. These reforms ended the privileges of the landlords, secured the position of the peasants and restored their confidence by making them the owners of the land they were cultivating. It led to their economic development. They begun to educate their children and avail facilities of better health and cultural advancement .This pawed way for their social advancement. However, land reforms did not do much in improving the conditions of landless laborers.

c. Highlight the Education Policy of the Government in Jammu and Kashmir during Bakshi’s period?
The education policy of the government in Jammu and Kashmir during Bakshi‟s period is as follows:
1) The salaries of the teachers were significantly increased.
2) Education was made free from primary to university level. Moreover, free textbooks & scholarships were provided to the poor student.
3) A network of educational institutions for primary, middle and the higher education were opened.
4) Job oriented education was also in cooperated in the curriculum.
5) Women education received special attention and there was an unprecedented increase in women schools and colleges.
6) Medical and engineering colleges were established in Srinagar .National institute of technology (NIT) and Government Medical College (GMC) were founded during his regime.

d. Write a short note on Jashn-i-Kashmir and Cultural Front?

Jashn-Kashmir is a festival which was first hosted by government of J&K in 1956.it was held throughout the region. It intended to bring to light many aspects of Kashmiri culture and served as a bridge of contact between Kashmir and rest of India. It show cased regional theater, music, poetry, dance of Kashmir as well as of various other states.
Cultural Front: It was an organization which contributed to the development of a syncretism cultural ethos. Writers affiliated with cultural front travelled throughout the region in villages and small towns holding drama and theater, programmes and activities on themes pertaining to social change, proletariat life , status of women and Hindu Muslim unity. Cultural front was renamed as cultural congress in 1949 and began to publish its literary journal Kwang Posh.

e. Discuss the role of state in the promotion of tourism.?
The government lunched “Kashmir Chalo Campaign” and also took some important steps to give boost to tourism which included:-
1) Opening up publicity wings all over the country.
2) Improvement in air services.
3) Abolition of permit system.
4) Construction of youth hostels.
5) Revitalizing hotel arrangements and establishment of a tourist reception centre.
As a result, tourism started to flourish in the state.

f. Write a short note on the development of roads and buildings during Bakshi’s regime?
The construction of roads and buildings received huge impetus after 1947 especially under the government of Bakshi Gulam Muhammad .Apart from constructing educational institutions, hospitals, buildings for government departments, hydro electric projects, housing colonies and stadiums, Bakshi Gulam Muhmmad also significantly contributed to the establishment of vast network of roads within the state. Construction of Banihal tunnel designed by German engineers was considered to be one of the greatest achievements of the time. In order to bridge up the rural urban divide, the city buses service was started which connected the remote towns and villages.

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