History (9th) Book

Read More

Chapter 1 The French Revolution

What were the main causes of the French Revolution?

Answer:

(i) Despotic rule of Louis XVI: He became the ruler of France in 1774. He had drained the financial resources of France in wars. For the cost of his extravagant expenses, he increased taxes which were paid by the third estate. 

(ii) Division of French society: The French society was divided into three estates; first, second and third estates, respectively. Among them, First and Second Estates had 10 per cent of the total population and were the clergy and nobles. They enjoyed all privileges. Rest of the 90 per cent was of the third estate, which paid all kinds of direct or indirect taxes. This kind of discrimination led to the revolution by the third estate. 

(iii) Rising prices: The population of France had increased. This resulted into more demand of food grains. So the price of bread rose rapidly, which the poor could not afford to buy. So the gap between the rich and poor widened. 

(iv) Inspiration of the philosophers: Philosophers like John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu propagated the ideas of having a society where people would enjoy freedom, equal laws and equal opportunities. Their ideas inspired the people of France to realise their dream. 

(v) Role of middle class: The 18th century witnessed the emergence of social groups termed as middle class, who earned their wealth through an expanding trade of the manufactured goods, being exported. There were other professionals also like lawyers, administrative officials who were all educated. They believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth.

Which incident had led to the outbreak of the revolution in France?

Answer:

The incidents leading to the outbreak of the revolution were:- 

(i) Meeting of the Estates General: On 5 May 1789, Louis XVI called for a meeting to propose new taxes. Representatives of all the three estates reached there, but members of the third estate had to stand at the back, as they were not offered any seat. Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly. 

(ii) Demand for Universal Adult Franchise: Members of the third estate demanded the power for each member to vote. When the King rejected the demand, members of the third estate walked out of the assembly to protest. 

(iii) Meeting of the newly formed National Assembly: Since the percentage of the third estate was more, they considered themselves as spokesmen for the whole French nation. They assembled in an indoor tennis court of Versailles and declared themselves as the ‘National Assembly’. They believed in removing the feudal privileges of the nobles and clergy. 

(iv) Revolt by peasants: The countryside rumours spread from village to village that their ripe crops would be destroyed by hired bands of lords of manors. Peasants in several districts seized hoes and attacked the residences of their manors. They looted, hoarded grain and burnt down documents containing records of manorial dues. 

(v) Fall of Bastille prison: During this political turmoil, the French had experienced severe winters leading to bad harvest. It increased the price of bread, which was hoarded in the market. Angry women attacked the shops. At History: India and the Contemporary World-1   July 1789 the same time, the King ordered troops to move into Paris. On 14 July 1789, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille prison.

Who formed the Jacobin Club? What measures had he taken to remove discrimination in the French society and form a French Republic?

Answer:

The Jacobin Club was formed by Maximilian Robespierre. The measures taken or adopted were 

(i) Formation of political clubs: Large sections of the society were convinced that the revolution had to be carried further, as the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of the society. Political clubs became an important rallying point for people who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own forms of action. 

(ii) Members of the Jacobin Club: Its members were from less prosperous sections of society. They included small shopkeepers, artisans like shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers and daily wage earners. A large number of members of the Jacobin Club decided to wear long striped trousers, to look apart. They also wore red caps to symbolise freedom. 

(iii) All citizens got the right to vote: On the morning of 10 August 1792, Jacobins stormed the Palace of Tuileries, massacred the King’s guards and held the King hostage for several hours. Later, they voted to imprison the royal family. Then the assembly declared that elections would be held to form a government. All men above 21 years of age regardless of wealth got the right to vote. 

(iv) Declaration of France as a Republic: The newly elected assembly was called ‘Convention’. On 21 September 1792, it abolished the monarchy and declared France as a Republic. Now people elected their government. There was no hereditary monarchy. 

(v) End of Monarchy: Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charges of betraying his own country. On 21 January 1793, he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde. The queen, Marie Antoinette also met width the same fate.

How was slave trade started? When and how was it abolished?                     OR Prepare a short note on ‘Slave Trade’.

Answer:

There was a shortage of labour at the plantation. So, Europeans solved this problem by a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and America. Trade began in the 17th century. French merchants sailed to the African Coast to buy slaves from their local chieftains. The slaves were packed in the ships for a three-month voyage across the Atlantic to the Caribbean. There, were sold to plantation owners. Exploitation of slave labour made it to meet the growing demand in European markets for sugar, and coffee. In France, the National Assembly held long discussions vide rights to all the people living in France. But it did not pass any laws. Ultimately, in 1794 the ‘Convention’ passed a law to free all the slaves in the French colonies. This was, however, a short-term measure as later. Napoleon Bonaparte reintroduced slavery.

Who was Napoleon Bonaparte? Why was he called a liberator?

Answer:

In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself the Emperor of France and reintroduced monarchy in France. He conquered his neighboring countries and created kingdoms, where he placed his own family members He was called a modernizer of Europe. He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights am measures provided by the decimal system. Initially, many people believe that Napoleon was a liberator who would bring freedom for the people. Bu soon his army was viewed as an invading force. So he was finally defeated 1815, in the famous ‘Battle of Waterloo’. Many of his measures that carried the revolutionary ideas of liberty and modern laws to other parts of Europe had an impact on people long after Napoleon had left.

How did the fall of Bastille prison become the immediate cause of French Revolution?

Answer:

On the morning of 14th July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. The king ordered his troops to move into the city. Rumours spread that he would soon order the army to open fire upon the citizens. Some 7,000 me and women gathered in front of the town hall and decided to form a people militia. A group of several hundred people marched towards the eastern part of the city and stormed the fortress-prison, the Bastille. In the armed fight, the commander of Bastille was killed and prisoners released. Since the Bastille stood for the despotic power of the king, it led people towards the success of French Revolution.

How can you say that Louis XVI was a despotic ruler?

Answer:

Louis XVI of Bourbon dynasty, ascended the throne in 1774. He was married to Austrian princess Marie Antoinette. When he became ruler, he found a empty treasury. Long years of war had drained the financial resources France. Added to this was the cost of maintaining an extravagant court the immense palace of Versailles. Louis XVI also helped American armies their war of independence, which led to further rise to more than 2 billion livres debt. To meet its regular expenses, the state was forced to increase tax Nobles, clergy and rich men were exempted from paying taxes, it was the third estate which bore the brunt.

What does subsistence crisis mean? What led to subsistence crisis in France?

Answer:

Subsistence Crisis: It is an extreme situation where the basic means livelihood are endangered. The demand for food grains was increased as population had increased France from 23 million to 28 million. Production of grains could not keep space with the demand. So the price of bread, which was the staple diet the majority, rose rapidly. Most workers were employed as labourers workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So the gap between the poor and the rich widened. Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest. This led to subsistence crisis something that occurred frequently in France during the old Regime.

What is the role of middle classes in ending the privileges?

Answer:

In the past peasants and workers had participated in the revolts against taxes and food scarcity. But they could not change the social and economic order. This was left to those groups within the Third Estate who had become prosperous and had access to education and new ideas. The18th century witnessed the emergence of social groups termed as middle class who earned their wealth through an expanding overseas trade and from manufacturing goods and exporting them. In addition to merchants manufacturers, the Third estate included professions such as that of lawyers or administrative officials. All of these were educated and believed no group in society should be privileged by birth. Rather, a person’s position must depend on his merit.

Who represented the National Assembly on 5th May 1789?

Answer:

On 5th May 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of Estates General ass proposals for new taxes. A resplendent hall in Versailles was prepared to host the delegates. The first and second estates sent 300 representatives each, who were seated in rows facing each other on two sides, while the members of the third estate had to stand at the back. The third estate represented by its more prosperous and educated members. Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly.

How was National Assembly recognised?

Answer:

Faced with the power of his revolting subjects, Louis XVI finally accorded cognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his powers would from now on be checked by a constitution. On the night of 4th August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes. Members of the clergy too were forced to give up their privileges. Tithes were abolished and lands owned by the Church were confiscated. As a result, the government acquired assets worth at least 2 billion livers.

Describe the main features of the constitution of 1791 drafted by National Assembly.

Answer:

(i) Constitutional Monarchy: The constitution made France a constitution monarchy. In this system monarch would remain monarch but legislative powers would be transferred to the National Assembly. 

(ii) National Assembly: It was indirectly elected. In it citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the assembly. Once chosen, National Assembly would keep a control on the country. 

(iii) Right to Vote: However, not all citizens had the right to vote, only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s were given the status of active citizens. They were only entitled to vote. 

(iv) Powers of National Assemble: National Assembly had the power to ma laws. It is voted by about 50,000 electors and constituted of 745 member It could keep control on both king and the ministers. 

(v) Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizens: The constitution began with Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens. Rights such as the rights to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as natural and inalienable rights.

Read More

Chapter 2 Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution

Textbook question answers

Q 1.   What were the social economic and political conditions in Russia before 1905?

Ans: 

Economic condition:

1. The vast majority of Russia’s people were agriculturists. About 85 percent of the Russian empire’s population earned their living from agriculture.
2. Cultivators produced for the market as well as for their own needs and Russia was a major exporter of grain.
3. The industry was found in pockets. Prominent industrial areas were St Petersburg and Moscow.
4. Large factories existed alongside craft workshops.
5. Many factories were set up in the 1890s when Russia’s railway network was extended and foreign investment in industry increased.
6. Most industries were the private property of industrialists.

Social condition:

1. Workers were divided into social groups on the basis of skill. The division was also visible in dress and manners also.
2. Some workers formed associations to help members in times of unemployment or financial hardship.
3. Despite divisions, workers united themselves to strike, work when they disagreed with employers about dismissals or work conditions,
4. Like workers, peasants too were divided. They also had no respect for the nobility,
5. Peasants pooled their land together periodically and their commune divided it according to the needs of individual families.

Political condition:

1. Russia was under the control of Tsars, who believed in the Divine Right Theory of Kings.
2. The general people had no say in the administration of the country.
3. All political parties were illegal.

Q 2. In what ways was the working population in Russia different from other countries in Europe before 1917?

Advertisement

Ans:

 The working population in Russia was different from other countries in Europe before 1917 in the following ways

Industrial Workers

1. Many workers had settled in cities permanently but many had strong links with the villages from which they came and continued to live in villages. They went to the towns to work daily and then returned to their villages in the evenings.
2. Workers were a divided social group. Workers were divided by skill. Divisions among workers were visible in their dress and manners also.
3. Metal workers considered themselves aristocrats among workers as their occupations demanded more training and skill.
4. Women made up 31 percent of the labour force by 1914, but they were paid less than men.
5. Some workers formed associations of help in times of unemployment or financial hardship.
6. Workers got low wages and they had long working hours. They had very few political rights; in short, their life was miserable.

Agricultural Workers

1. About 85 percent of Russia’s population earned their living from agriculture but most of them were landless farmers.
2. Most of the land was owned by the nobility, the crown and the Orthodox Church.
3. In France, during the French Revolution in Brittany, peasants respected and fought for the landowners, but in Russia peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given to them.
4. They refused to pay rent and even murdered landlords.
5. Russian peasants were different from European peasants in another way. They pooled their land together periodically and their commune divided it according to the needs of individual families.
6. Like industrial workers, the condition of the agricultural workers or farmers was also very miserable because of low wages, doing free labour and paying high rent and revenue.

Q 3. Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?

Ans:

The Tsarist autocracy collapsed in 1917 due to the following reasons

(a) Miserable Condition of the Workers

1. The industrial workers in Russia got very low wages. They had very long working hours, sometimes up to 15 hours.
2. A large number of workers were unemployed.
3. The workers demanded higher wages and the reduction in working hours but their demands were not met and they became dissatisfied.

(b) Miserable Condition of Peasants

1. Most of the peasants were landless and very poor.
2. The small farmers who possessed land had to pay high land revenue.
3. The landless farmers demanded that the land of the nobles should be given to them.

However, their demands were not fulfilled and they too became dissatisfied.

about:blank

(c) Russia’s Defeat in the First World War

1. Initially, the people rallied around Tsar Nicholas II; however Russian armies suffered defeats and a large number of soldiers were killed in the war.
2. The Russian population wanted to withdraw from the war, but the Tsar was not willing to do so. This turned the Russian people against him and encouraged them to revolt.

Q 4. Make two lists: one with the main events and the effects of the February Revolution and the other with the main events and the effects of the October Revolution. Write a paragraph on who was involved in each. Who were the leaders and what was the impact of each on the Soviet history?

Ans:

• February, Revolution

22nd February 1917: A lockout took place at a factory which was followed by a workers strike in fifty factories. Women led the strikes in many factories and this day came to be known as the International Women’s Day.

25th February 1917: The government suspended the Duma.

Striking workers and soldiers gathered to form a ‘Soviet’ or ‘council’ in the same building where the Duma met. This was the ‘Petrograd Soviet’.

2nd March 1917: The Tsar abdicated on the advice of the military commanders.

The Soviet leaders and the Duma leaders formed a provisional Government for running the country.

A Constituent Assembly was elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage for deciding the nature of government in Russia.

Effect

1. The liberals and the socialists along with the influential army officials, landowners and industrialists in the Provisional Government worked towards an elected government.
2. Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from his exile
3. In Industrial areas, factory committees were formed.
4. Trade unions grew and soldier’s committees were formed in the army.
5. Land committees were formed and peasants seized land between July and September 1917.

Who were Involved; the Leaders and Its Impact

Both men and women workers were involved. There were no particular leaders. The effect was that it brought down the autocratic monarchy.

October Revolution

about:blank

October 1917: Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party for a socialist seizure of power.

A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet under Leon Trotskii for organizing the seizure.

24th October 1917: The uprising began. Prime Minister Kerenskii left the city for summoning troops. Military men loyal to the government seized the buildings of the two Bolshevik newspapers; troops were sent to take over telephone and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace.

The Military Committee ordered the seizure of government offices and arrest of ministers.

By December, the Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow-Petrograd area.

Results of the October Revolution

1. Most industries and banks were nationalized.
2. The land was declared to be a social property and the peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
3. Large houses were partitioned as per the requirements of the family.
4. The use of old titles by the aristocracy was banned.
5. New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
6. The Bolshevik party was renamed the ‘Russian Communist Party’.

Who was Involved, the Leaders and Its Impact

Bolsheviks were the main people involved. Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky were the main leaders. The effect was that it brought the Bolsheviks to power to form a communist government for the first time in the world.

Question 5. What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the October Revolution?

Answer

The main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the October Revolution were

1. The Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property.
2. Therefore most industries and banks were nationalised.
3. The land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
4. In cities, Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements.
5. They banned the use of old titles of the aristocracy.
6. New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
7. The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).
8. Russia became a one-party state and trade unions were kept under party control.
9. For the first time, the Bolsheviks introduced a centralised planning on the basis of which Five Year Plans were made for the development of Russia.

Q 6. Write a few lines to show what you know about

1. Kulaks
2. The Duma
3. Women workers between 1900 and 1930
4. The Liberals

Ans:

about:blank

(a) Kulaks

Kulaks were the well to do peasants of Russia. The members of the Bolshevik party raided the Kulaks and their goods were seized. It was believed that the Kulaks were exploiting the peasants and hoarding grain to earn higher profits and thus leading to grain shortages.

(b) The Duma

1. During the 1905· Revolution, the Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma as it was called in Russia.
2. The Tsar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and the second Duma was elected within three months.
3. The third Duma was packed with conservative politicians. Liberals and revolutionaries were kept out of the Duma.

(c) Women Workers between 1900 and 1930

1. Women made up 31 percent of the factory labour force by 1914, but they were paid less than men.

In the February Revolution in many factories, the women led the way to strikes. Thus, 22 February came to be called the International Women’s Day.

(d)The Liberals

1. They wanted secularism, safeguarding the rights of individuals against governments and opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers.
2. They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government.
3. They wanted the interpretation of the laws by a well-trained judiciary that was independent of rulers and officials.
4. They did not believe in a universal adult franchise and wanted the right to vote for only the men of property.
5. They did not support the granting of voting rights to women.

 (e) Stalin’s collectivization programme

Stalin introduced a programme of collectivization.

1. Peasants worked on the lands of the owners of collective farms and the profit was shared.
2. Those who resisted collectivization were severely punished or deported and exiled.
3. Stalin treated independent cultivation unsympathetically.

Read More

Chapter 3 Nazism and the Rise of Hitler

Question 1. Write a one page history of Germany

(a) as a schoolchild in Nazi Germany
(b) as a Jewish survivor of a concentration camp
(c) as a political opponent of the Nazi regime .

Answer

(a) As a Schoolchild in Nazi Germany I have been conditioned behave in a particular manner since I was three years old. First I given a flag to wave, to show my patriotism. I was told that men’s women’s roles in life were totally different. We were told that the for equal rights of men and women was a thing of the past as it WOIJIC destroy our society today. We boys were taught to be aggressive. masculine and steel hearted, while the girls were told that they had become good mothers and rear pure-blooded Aryan children.

The girls had to maintain the purity of the race, distance themselves from Jews, look after the home, and teach their children Nazi values.

They had to be the bearers of the Aryan culture and race.

I had to take an oath of loyalty to Hitler, proclaiming him as the savior of the country. I have been told that after finishing school, I will join the Hitler Youth Organisation. This will be followed by military sevices, which is compulsory.

 (b) As a Jewish Survivor of a Concentration Camp Thanks to the Lord for saving my life. I am happy to have survived three years of torturous life in the concentration camp. Of course, I am now very weak and ill, but I am still alive.

So many of my friends, relatives and even family members died before my eyes due to the bad treatment meted out to them in the camp. They were regularly beaten, left to starve and worked in very harsh conditions. Many of them were sent to the gas chambers and I was always afraid of my number coming next. Luckily I have survived to tell this tale.

(iii) As a Political Opponent of the Nazi Regime Since the Nazis have captured power, they are making life hell for all people who do not follow their doctrine. I do not understand what they will gain by trying to conquer other nations.

The bombing by the British on our homes has killed many of my relatives and friends. Aggression on other countries will definitely cause war with them and we will also lose men and property in war. The way the Nazis are going about increasing their power, I feel, in the long run, we will lose out, as this war will make all other nations to go against us. I hope Hitler sees sense and stops this war soon .

Questions

Question 1. Describe the problems faced by the Weimar Republic.

Answer

The Weimar Republic formed the German Government after the First World War, which Germany lost. The republic faced two kinds of problems

(i) Economic Crisis The war had been very costly for all concerned. The damage and human casualties, along with post-war depletion of resources, consequent debts and war compensation led to this crisis.

Hyperinflation made the German Mark valueless and caused immense hardship to the German people.

(ii) Political Crisis Although the National Assembly framed a democratic Constitution, it was too weak. Proportional representation and Article 48 resulted in the creation of a political crisis and finally the death of the Weimar Republic.

Question 2. Discuss why Nazism became popular in Germany by 1930.

Answer :Nazism became popular for the following reasons

1. After defeat in the First World War, Germany was forced to sign the harsh and humiliating Treaty of Versailles, in which it was made to accept the guilt for the war. The Germans felt disgraced and humiliated. Consequently, they were made to believe, by Hitler’s oratory, that he would restore Germany to its former glory
2. Political parties like the Communists, Socialists, Democrats, etc were not united. There were conflicts between them and the government became weak. The Nazi Party took advantage of the situation and captured power.
3. Democracy in Germany was relatively new and it was not strong. It did not appeal to the Germans. They wanted a party and a system that would re-establish the glory and prestige of Germany. So, they were attracted to the Nazi Party.
4. Hitler was a great orator and with his speeches he was able to sway the masses and win their confidence. He was able to convince them that he would undo the injustice done and bring back the glory and dignity of the German people. He promised employment for those looking for work. He won over the youth by promising them a secure future.
5. He got the support of the Army, the industrialists and the landlords because he opposed communism and socialism, which these people also opposed.

Thus, Hitler and the Nazi Party were able to win the suppourt of all sections of Germans and so become popular.

Question 3. What are the peculiar features of Nazi thin.ki.ng?

Answer: The peculiar features of Nazism were

1. Nazis believed in the idea of one people, one empire and one leader.
2. It did not tolerate other parties and tried to crush all other organisations and parties and wanted to remove socialism communism and democracy from Germany.
3. According to Nazism there was no equality between people. In this view, the blue eyed Nordic German Aryans were at the top while the Jews were located at the lowest rung.
4. It was propagated that the Jews were responsible for the economic misery of the Germans.
5. Nazis propagated war and glorified aggression.
6. Nazis believed in the idea of Lebensraum on living space. i.e., new areas should be acquired so that more space is available for the Germans to settle.
7. Nazis wanted to create a separate racial community of pure German by physically eliminating all those who were seen as undesireab1e by them.
8. The Nazis believed that Jews were inferior and the cause of German misery and therefore should be totally eliminated.
9. The Nazi argument was simple. The strongest race would survive and the weak ones would perish.
10. The Aryan race was the finest. It had to retain its purity, become stronger and dominate the world.

Question 4. Explain why Nazi propaganda was effective in creating a hatred for Jews.

Answer: Nazi propaganda was effective in creating hatred for the Jews for the following reason

1. The Jews were stereotyped as killers of Christ. They had been barred since medieval times from ownership of land.
2. They were already hated as usurers or money-lenders. Violence against Jews, even inside their residential ghettos, was common. Hitler’s race theories fanned this hatred. He wanted all Jews to be eliminated from Germany.

Question 5. Explain what role women had is Nazi society. Return to chapter 1 on the French Revolution. Write a paragraph comparing and contrasting the role of women in the two periods.

Answer: Role of women in Nazi society was modelled on the principles of a large!y patriarchal or male-dominated society. Hitler hailed women as most importanfcitizens, but this was limited to only Aryan women who bred pure-blood, ‘desirable’ Aryans. Motherhood was the only goal they were taught to strive for, in addition to performing the duties of managing the. household and being good wives.

This was in total contrast to the role of women in the French Revolution, where women led movements and fought for the right to education and the right to equal wages as men. They could not be forced to marry against their will. They could also train for jobs, become artists or run small businesses. Schooling was made compulsory for them.

Question 6. In what ways did the Nazi state seek to establish total control over the people?

Answer: Hitler, after coming to power, emerged as an all powerful dictator.

He destroyed demooracy in Germany.

1. The First Fire decree in 1933 suspended the civic rights like freedom of speech, press and assembly and thus controlled the German population.
2. The Enabling Act was passed. It gave all powers to Hilter to Sideline Parliament and rule by decree.
3. All political parties except the Nazi Party were banned. All political opponents were imprisoned or assasinated.
4. The communists were suppressed and ‘sent to concentration camps.
5. Special security forces such as the SA, SS, SD and Gestapo were created to control and order society in ways that the Nazis wanted. These forces were given extra constitutional powers.
6. In schools children were taught to be loyal and submissive hate and worship Hitler.
7. Nazi youth organisations, the like ‘Jungvolk’ and ‘Hitler Youth’ were created where the youth were taught to worship war and Hitler hate democracy, communism and Jews.
8. Media was used carefully to win the support for Hitler and Nazism. Nazi ideas were spread through visual images films, radio, posters and catchy slogans and leaflets.

Read More

Chapter 4 Forest Society and Colonialism

Question 1. Have there been changes in forest areas where you live ?

Find out what these changes are and why they have happened.
AnswerThere can be a variety of answers. A sample answer is given below

There have been a number of changes in forest areas in India since independence and some which have occurred in my district are as follows

• Entry to forest area is restricted and the Forest Department has posted guards to check any illegal entry
• Although. the number of trees in the forest has Increased, reduction of rainfall in recent years has stunted the growth of trees.
• The Adivasi villagers living inside the forest areas are gradually leaving their traditional occupations and migrating to the towns for education and jobs.
• A number of wild animals like tigers and elephants are sometimes seen on the edges of the forest. but they do not venture out for fear of being killed by human beings. Earlier the tigers used to come into the nearby villages and take away animals and small children at night.

Question 2. Write a dialogue between a colonial forester Adivasi discussing the issue of hunting in the forest.

AnswerA sample dialogue is given below

• Colonial Forester (CF) Who are you? What are you doing inside the fores this time?
• Adivasi (A) I am a villager living in XYZ village on the south edge of forest. I have come to hunt some animals for feeding my family.
• CF Don’t you know that we have banned the hunting of animals in forest? Go away, you cannot be allowed to hunt animals. It is illegal.
• A I need the flesh of the animal so that my wife can cook the food. I regularly hunt for animals and nobody has stopped me before.
• CF No, you will not be allowed to do this. Only Britishers are allowed to animals. Go back to your village. Otherwise, I will have you arrested.
• A Okay, if you say so, I will go. But I will return.

Questions

Question 1. Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people.

• Shifting cultivators
• Nomadic and pastoralist communities
• Firms trading in timber/forest produce
• Plantation owners
• Kings/British officials engaged in shikar

Answer

(a)Shifting Cultivators

• European foresters regarded shifting cultivation as harmful for the forests. The government banned shifting cultivation.
• Shifting cultivators were forcibly displaced from their homes In the forests.
• Some had to change occupations, while some resisted through large and small rebellions.

(b)Nomadic and Pastoralist Communities

• The forest laws deprived people of their customary rights and meant severe hardship for the nomadic and pastoralist communities. They could not cut wood for their houses, could graze their cattle or collect fruits and roots. Hunting and fishing became illegal.

forest Society and Colonialism

• They were forced to steal wood. If they were caught, they were at the mercy of the forest guards and they would have to offer bribes to the guards.
• Many pastoralist and nomadic communities like the Korava, Karacha of the Madras Presidency lost their livelihoods.
• Some of the nomadic communities began to be called criminal tribes and were forced to work instead in factories, mines and plantations under government supervision.
• They were also recruited to work in plantations. Their wages were low and conditions of work very bad.

(c)Firms Trading in TImber/Forest Produce

• By the early nineteenth century, oak forests in England were disappearing. This created a problem of timber supply for the Royal Navy.
• By the 1820s, search parties were sent to explore the forest resources in India. Trees were felled on a massive scale and large quantities of timber were being exported from India.
• The colonial government took over the forests and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates.
• The British Government gave many large European trading firms the sole right to trade in the forest products of particular areas.
• The government gave contracts to contractors who cut trees indiscriminately and made huge profits.

(d)Plantation Owners

• Large areas of natural forests were also cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations to meet Europe’s growing need for these commodities.
• The colonial government took over the forests, and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates. These areas were enclosed and cleared of forests and planted with tea or coffee.
• Communities like Santhals from Assam, and Oraons from Jharkhand and Gonds from Chhattisgarh were recruited to work on tea plantations. Their wages were low and conditions of work very bad.
• The plantation owners, under the protection and rights given by the British Government, made huge profits.

(e)Kings/British Officials Engaged in Shikar

• In India, Shikar or hunting of tigers and other animals had been part of the culture of the court and nobility for centuries.
• Under colonial rule the scale of hunting increased to such an extent that various species became almost extinct.
• The British saw large animals as signs of a wild, primitive and savage society. They believed that by killing dangerous animals the British would civilize India.
• The British gave rewards for the killing of tigers, wolves and large animals on the grounds that they posed a threat cultivators.
• The Maharaja of Sarguja alone shot-1157 tigers and leopards upto 1957. A British Administrator George Yule 400 tigers.
• Over 80000 tigers, 150000 leopards and 200000 wolves Wet. killed for reward between 1875 and 1925.
• Initially certain areas of the forests were reserved for hunting.

Question 2. What were the similarities between colonial management of the forests in Bastar and Java?

AnswerForest management of Bastar in India was in the hands of the British and in Java it was in the hands of the Dutch.

• The Dutch, like the British, wanted timber to build ships and to make sleepers for railway tracks.
• Both the British and the Dutch enacted forest laws to control the forests and put restrictions on the customary rights of the local people. They were prevented from entering the forests, they could not graze cattle, or cut wood or take forest produce without permission.
• Both the governments banned shifting cultivation.
• Both the British and the Dutch introduced scientific forestry.
• The villagers in Bastar were allowed to stay on in the forests on the condition that they would provide free labour for the forest department in cutting and transportation of trees and protecting the forests from fire. Similarly, in Java the Dutch imposed rents on the cultivated land in the forests and then exempted some villages if they collectively provided free labour and buffaloes for cutting and transporting timber. This system was known as the ‘blandongdiensten’ system.
• When the exploitation by the British in Bastar and the Dutch in Java became too much, the forest communities in Bastar and Java revolted under Gundadhur and Surontiko Samin respectively. Both the revolts were crushed in 1910 and 1770 respectively

forest Society and Colonialism

Question 3. Between 1880 and 1920 forest cover in the Indian subcontinent declined by 9.7 million hectares, from 108.6 million hectares to 98.9 million hectares. Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline.

(a) Railways
(b) Ship building
(c) Agricultural expansion
(d) Commercial farming
(e) Tea/Coffee plantations
(f) Adivasis and other peasant users

Answer

(a)Railways

• The spread of railways from the 1850’s created a new demand. Railways were essential for colonial trade and for the movement of imperial troops. To run locomotives. Wood was needed as fuel and to lay railway lines sleepers were essential to hold the tracks together. Each mile of railway track required between 1760 and 2000 sleepers.
•  From the 1860’s the railway network expanded rapidly. As the length of the railway tracks expanded a very large number of trees were felled. As early as the 185Os,in the Madras Presidency alone 35000 trees were cut annually for sleepers. Forests around the railway tracks started disappearing very fast. –

(b)Ship Building

• By the early 19th century, oak forests in England were disappearing. This created a problem of timber supply from the Royal Navy. English ships could not be built without a regular supply of strong and durable timber. Imperial power could not be protected without ships. Therefore by the 1820’s, search parties were sent to explore the forest resources of India.
• Within a decade trees were being felled on a massive scale and vast quantities of timber were being exported, leading to disappearance of forests.

(c)Agricultural expansion

• As population increased, the demand for food went up. Peasants extended the boundaries of cultivation by clearing forests.
• In the early 19th century, the colonial state thought that the forests were unproductive. They were considered to be wilderness that had to be brought under cultivation so, that the land could yield agricultural products and revenue, and enhance the income of the state. So between 1880 and 1920, cultivated are a rose by 6.7 million hectares by clearing the forests.
• The demand for commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat, cotton and raw material for industries increased. Therefore the British encouraged expansion of cultivation by clearing forests, Leading to decline in forest cover.

(d)Commercial Farming of Trees

•  In commercial farming, natural forests which had lots of different types of trees were cut down, In their place one type of trees was planted in straight rows, This is called a plantation, To promote plantation farming or commercial farming, different varieties of trees were cut down leading to loss of many species and loss of forest cover when the trees were cut for commercial use.

(e)Tea/Coffee Plantation

• Large areas of natural forests were also cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations to meet Europe’s growing need for these commodities,
• The colonial government took over the forests and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates,
• These areas were enclosed and cleared of forests and planted with tea or coffee.
• Plantations were large in area leading to loss of large forest areas.

(f)Adivasis and Other Peasant Users

• As in most parts of the world, shifting cultivation was done by the Adivasis and other peasant communities in India also,
• In shifting cultivation, parts of the forest area are cut and burnt In rotation. Seeds were sown in the ashes after the first monsoon rains and the crop was harvested by October-November, When fertility decreased, the process was repegted at another location. This led to a large loss of forests.

Question 4. Why are forests affected by wars?

AnswerForests are affected by wars because forest products are used for fulfilling various needs and requirement during war. In the case of India.
during the First World War and the Second World War the forest department’ cut trees freely to meet British war needs.

During the Second World War in Java just before the Japanese occupied the region, the Dutch followed ‘a scorched Earth policy‘, destroying sawmills and burning huge piles of giant teak logs so that they did not fall into Japanese hands.

The Japanese exploited the forests recklessly for their war industries forcing villagers to cut down forests, Many villagers took this opportunity expand cultivation in the forests. Thus, wars also led to destruction forests.

Read More

Chapter 5 Pastoralists in the Modern World

Question 1. Imagine that it is 1950 and you are a 60-year-old Raika herder living in post-Independence India. You are telling your grand-daughter about the changes which have taken place in your lifestyle after Independence. What would you say?

AnswerSince the coming of independence, my life has changed quite a bit. Since now there is not enough pasture for our animals, we had to reduce the number of the animals we keep. We have changed our grazing grounds also, as those on the banks of the River Indus have gone into Pakistan and we are not allowed to go there.

So, we have found alternative grazing grounds in Haryana, where our herds go when the harvest has been cut. At this time they can feed on the stumps of the plants remaining and also fertilise the soil with manure from their excreta.

Your father did not like a herder’s life and so he decided to become a farmer. I gave him my savings to buy some land and now he is cultivating food grains. I think you will have a much better life than what we had.

Question 2. Imagine that you have been asked by a famous magazine to write an article about the life and customs of the Maasai pre-colonial Africa. Write the article, giving it an interesting title.

Answer Peculiarities of Maasai CultureThe word Maasai means ‘My People’ (‘Maa’ means My and ‘sai’ means people, in their language). They are traditionally nomadic and pastoral people. The males in their society are-divided into two parts – Elders and Warriors. The elders belong to the higher age group and decide on the affairs of the community by meeting as a group and also settle disputes.

The Warriors are the younger group who are responsible for the protection of the tribe. They also organize cattle raids when required. Since cattle are their wealth, these raids assume importance. as in this way they are able to assert their power Over other pastoral groups. However, the Warriors are subject to the authority of the Elders.

Question 3.Find out more about the some of the pastoral communities marked in Figs. 11 and 13.

Pastoralists in the Modem World

AnswerDo it yourself

Questions

Question 1. Explain why nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another? What are the advantages to the environment of this continuous movement ?

Answer Nomads are people who do not live in one place but move from one area to another to earn their living. Their main occupation is cattle rearing for which they need availability of water and pastures for grazing their animals. When the pastures get depleted they move to another place with their animals. looking for pasture and water. When the water and pasture get depleted they move again and keep repeating the cycle.

Advantages

• The movement of the nomads allows the pasture to regrow and recover.
• It helps to protect the ecology of the environment.
• It prevents the overuse of pastures.
• The cattle by the dung help in providing manure.

Question 2.Discuss why the colonial Government in India brought in the following laws. In each case explain how the law changed the lives of the pastoralists.

(a) Waste Land Rules
(b) Forest Acts
(c) Criminal Tribes Act
(d) Grazing Tax

Answer

(a)Waste Land RulesTo the colonial officials all uncultivated land appeared to be unproductive Therefore grazing lands were also considered as wastelands as they produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. The colonial government wanted to bring the grazing lands under cultivation so that they could get revenue and agriculture goods form this land.

According to wasteland rules. the uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals who were granted concessions and encouraged to settle these lands.

Therefore, expansion of cultivation inevitably meant the decline of pastures and created problems and hardships for the pastoralists.

(b)Forest ActsBy the mid nineteenth century. various Forest Acts were also being enacted in the different provinces of India. Through the
Forest Acts, the forests were divided into two categories; reserved forests and protected forests.

• Reserved Forests Some forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared ‘Reserved’. No pastoralisl was allowed access to these forests.
• Protected Forests In these forests some customary grazing rights of pastoralists were granted but their movements were severely restricted. They needed a permit tor entry into the forests. The British believed tna. during grazing the herds trampled over the saplings and munched away the shoots and prevented trees from growing. So, they enacted these laws to protect the forests.

Effects of the Forest ActsPastoralists could no longer remain in an area even if forage was available.

They could enter only by getting pemit for entry.

Pastoralists in the Modern World

If they overstayed the specified period of time they were liable to fines.

Their lives became difficult and full of hardships

Their traditional rights were severely restricted.

(c)Criminal Tribes ActThe British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They distrusted mobile craftsmen and traders who hawked their goods in villages and pastoralists who changed their places of residence every season, moving in search of good pastures for their herds.

Those who were nomadic were considered to be criminal and those who were settled as peaceable and law abiding.

In 1871, the colonial government passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By this Act many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as criminal tribes.

They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth.

Effects of Criminal Tribes ActAfter this act was enforced. these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements. They were not allowed to move out without a permit. The village police kept a continuous watch on them. They could no larger move from one place to another.

(d)Grazing TaxThe Grazing Tax in India was introduced by the colonial government in the mid nineteenth century. Pastoralists had to pay tax on
every animal they grazed on the pastures. The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly and the system of collection was made increasingly efficient. In {he decades between the 1850s and the 1880s, the right to collect tax was auctioned out to contractors. The contractors tried to extract as high a tax as they could. By the 1880s, the government began collecting taxes directly from the pastoralists

Effects of the Grazing TaxPastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures.

The tax vent up rapidly. So, the economic hardship of the pastoralists increased.

Question 3. Give reasons to explain why the Maasai community lost their grazing lands.

AnswerEuropean countries scrambled for possession of territories in Africa and sliced up the region into different colonies. In 1885, Maasailand was cut Into half with an international boundary between British Kenya and German Tanganyika.

Subsequently. grazing lands were taken over for White settlement and the Maasai were pushed into a small area in South Kenya and North Tanganyika. The Maasai lost about 60% of their precolonial lands.

Encouragement was given by the British colonial government in East Africa to peasant communities to expand cultivation and pasture lands were. converted into cultivated fields.

Large areas of grazing land were also turned into game reserves like the Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and Serengeti Park in Tanganyika. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves. They could neither hunt animals nor graze herds in these areas.

Very often these reserves were in areas that had traditionally been regular grazing grounds for Maasai herds.

Question 4. There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and East Africa. Write about any two examples of changes which were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai herder.

AnswerBoth India and East Africa were under the control and dominance of the European colonial powers with similar intentions and objectives.

In both places, the pastoral communities lost the pasture land because the colonial powers took control of these pastures and brought them under cultivation.

Both in India and East Africa, forest laws were made and the pastoralists were not permitted to use the forests for grazing or taking out forest produce.

So, in India and Africa, the pastures or the grazing land declined and created a lot of hardship for the pastoral communities.

Read More

Chapter 6 The Integration of Princely States: A Case Study of Jammu and Kashmir

 

Match the following
Column A	Column B
Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir	6th October, 1947
Instrument of Accession	Muzaffarabad
An area in Pakistan Occupied Jammu and Kashmir (PoJK)	26th January, 1957

Answers
Column A	Column B
Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir	26th January, 1957
Instrument of Accession	6th October, 1947
An area in Pakistan Occupied Jammu and Kashmir (PoJK)	Muzaffarabad

Fill in the blanks: 

1. _______________was the Viceroy of India at the time of  Indian Independence.

Answer:- Lord  Mountbatten

2. The meeting of the Defence Committee  was  held in Delhi  in the year____________________. 

Answer:- October  25,  1947

3.  A unique feat in  Ladakh  was  that of___________________________who resisted the tribal attack at Zojilla Pass. 

Answer:- Major General Themayya

4.  The  two  areas  that  fall  in  the  territory  of  Pakistan  Occupied  Jammu  & Kashmir are ______________and __________________. 

Answer:- Bhimber and Muzaffarabad

True or False: 

1. Karan Singh  was  the Maharaja of Jammu  and Kashmir at the time of the signing of Instrument of Accession. (   )

Answer:- False  (Maharaja Hari Singh)

2. V.P Menon advised the Defense Committee  to provide military support  to the state of Jammu and Kashmir. (  ) 

Answer:- True

3. Brigadier Rajinder Singh was killed in an operation launched against the tribal invaders at Uri. (  ) 

Answer:- True

4. Maharaja offered The Stand Still Agreement to both  India and Pakistan. (  ) 

Answer:- True

5. The  Constituent  Assembly  of  J&K  met  for  the  first  time  in  October  1951. (  )

Answer:- True

LET’S DISCUSS: 

a).  Briefly  discuss  the  events  leading  to  the  signing  of  the Instrument of Accession? 

Answer:- On  October  22,  1947,  a  large  number  of  armed  tribals (Pashtun) entered Muzaffarabad  from  where  they resumed their  progress  along  the Jhelum  Valley road towards  Srinagar. The  state  forces collapsed and Maharaja  requested  the Government of India  for  military  help. Though a meeting of Defense Committee  on October  25,  1947  under  the  chairmanship  of  Lord  Mountbatten in  Delhi  considered  Maharaja’s  demand for  the  supply of  arms and  ammunition  but urged that  it  would not be possible  to send  in  any  troops  unless  Jammu  and  Kashmir  had  first  offered to accede. Therefore Maharaja signed the instrument of accession on 26th Oct,  1947.  

b). What do you know about the Stand Still Agreement?

Answer:- In order to decide the future course of action, regarding accession Maharaja required some more time and so he offered a Stand Still Agreement to both Pakistan and India  on August  12, 1947. It asserted the maintenance of  status  quo in all  matters as it was with the British Indian  Government. Pakistan accepted the offer on 15th of August,1947 whereas India sought some clarifications. 

 c). Write a brief note on

 i)  Karachi ceasefire agreement. 

ii)  Formation  of  Jammu  and  Kashmir  Constituent  Assembly 

Answer:- i) Karachi ceasefire agreement:-  January,  1948,  India  moved  the  issue regarding  the occupation of  Jammu  and  Kashmir territories  by Pakistan to the  U.N.  which led  to United Nations Security Council Resolution  47  of 21st April,  1948.  Subsequently,  an  agreement  of  ceasefire  called  ‘The Karachi  Ceasefire  Agreement’  was signed  between India  and Pakistan in 1949.

ii)  Formation  of  Jammu  and  Kashmir  Constituent  Assembly:- In  October  1950,  the  General  Council  of  the  National  Conference passed  a resolution recommending election to Constituent Assembly  for the purpose  of giving  the State a Constitution that  would  determine  the  future  of  the  J&K  State.  The elections  to the Constituent Assembly were  accordingly  held  and  the  Assembly  met  for  the  first  time  in October,  1951.The  constituencies  were  delimited  on  the  basis  of one  member  to  forty thousand  people.  Further,  the  Constitution  of J&K came into force on 26th  January 1957.

Read More