History (11th) Textbook

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Chapter 1 Early Societies

I. VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE OF QUESTIONS; 

1. From which Latin word, does the English word ‘city’ come? 

Answer: It comes from the Latin word “Civitas”. 

2. Name the country in which the towns first grew? 

Answer: Mesopotamia (present day Iraq). 

3. Give two important components of civilization. 

Answer: Urban development and art of writing. 

4. When did the cities first begin to emerge? 

Answer: Between 5000-6000 years ago. 

5. In which areas first towns emerged? 

Answer: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) 

6. What factors led to the growth of towns? 

Answer: Growth of new professions and increased in trade. 

7. When was Mesopotamia city UR discovered by the archaeologists? 

Answer: 1830. 

8. When did the royal city of Mari flourish? 

Answer: Around 2000 BCE the royal city of Mari flourish. 

9. Give the names of any two early cities of India. 

Answer: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. 

10. During which period of history, the art of writing began to develop? 

Answer: Between 4,000, BC to 3,000, BC. 

11. Give the name of the earliest type of system of writing. 

Answer: Pictographic form of writing. 

12. What type of book was written by Julius Caesar? 

Answer: Julius Caesar wrote a history of his war in Gaul (Modern France). 

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS: 

13. Explain the meaning of city. 

Answer: The English word “city” comes from the Latin word “Civitas”, which describe a highly organized community like the city state of ancient Greece. The city provided a man with his religion, his amusement, his education and sought to satisfy his every need. 

14. How did the villages come into existence? 

Answer: The man in Palaeolithic age was a wanderer. When men became food producers, the life became more settled and the family unit came into existence. They continued to live in a large group but functioned more through family units than the groups. The families began to build mud houses with thatched roofs. Most of these houses were close to one another and were surrounded by a common fence of prickly bushes or mud walls. A number of families constituted a village. Gradually, some of the villages grew into large ones. 

15. How did the early big villages develop into cities? 

Answer: The number of people in the villages gradually increased. As the needs of the villagers increased, new occupations came into being. These villages became prosperous they were now producing more food than they required for subsistence. They could now exchange their surplus food for other things from weavers or carpenters or potters. It was no longer necessary for every family living in the village to work in the fields and produce its own food. With the growth of new professions and increase in trade, the craftsmen began to live together and thus big villages grew into cities. 

16. Give reasons why the village people migrated to cities? 

Answer: People move to the cities for various reasons but the most significant reason is economic. When city’s economy is prospering, it attracts people from the villages. Droughts, and famines or exploitation of farmers can cause extreme rural poverty and that “Pushes” people out of the villages and settle in the towns. 

17. How the cities served as the promoters of civilization? 

Answer: Urban dwellers have proved to be more receptive to new ideas and change than their rural neighbours. Townsmen have been more interested in wealth accumulation and the use of wealth for better living. The towns have been the instigators of freedom since they had “a middle class”, that is, a class without traditions and the conservatism bred of traditions. Moreover, urban centres have been market places, areas where goods were exchanged, deposit points for merchant fleets and caravans. Cities are linked to commerce. 

18. Give three basic reasons for the growth of early cities. 

Answer: The three basic reasons for the growth of early cities were economic growth, natural increase and rural urban migration. 

19. Write a note on the Mesopotamia city of Mari. 

Answer: Mari, the capital city of the Mari kingdom flourished around 2000 BC. It was a trading town in a pastoral zone. Mari was a good example of an urban centre prospering on trade in wood, copper, tin, oil and wine. Some of the Mesopotamian nomadic communities of western desert became prosperous and got settled down and some became so powerful and established their own kingdom such as Akkadians, Assyrians and Armenians. They also raised a temple at Mari for Dagan god of steppe. King Zimrilim built a palace in the capital city of Mari with only one entrance on the north. 

20. What do you know about the city of Kerkuk? 

Answer: Kerkuk city was built by king Nasirbal of Assyria between 884 and 858 BC as a military defence line. The Sluks built a strong defensive wall with 72 towers around the centre of the city, two entries and 72 streets. It was a trade and export centre for the surrounding areas. Textiles were also manufactured in this city. 

21. Write a note on Pictographic system of writing. 

Answer: Pictographic system of writing is a form of writing which uses representational, pictorial drawings similar to Cuneiform of writing. Writing was first entirely pictographic-that is, telling a story by means of a pictures. Pictographic writing is known from the Neolithic period. It is not a true writing, since it does not record speech itself but reflect speech content. This form of writing was developed in Mesopotamia. 

22. Why do we say that it was not natural fertility and high levels of food productions that were the cause of early urbanisation? 

Answer: Because Cities and towns are not just places with large populations. It is when an economy develops in spheres other than food production that it becomes an advantage for people to cluster in towns. Urban economies comprise besides food production, trade, manufactures and services. City population remains no more self-sufficient. It depends on the products or services of other people living in the villages or other cities. There is continuous interaction among them. There must be social organisation in a place to be urbanized. Division of labour is a mark of urban life. 

EASSY TYPE QUESTIONS: 

23. Describe the development of art of writing. Answer: One of the essential conditions for the birth of civilisation is a system of writing. Between 4000 BC and 3000 BC, there was a steady progress in the art of writing. A pictograph form of writing was developed in Mesopotamia. The first Mesopotamian tablets written around 3,200 BC contained pictures of signs and numbers. There was a list of around 5000 oxen, fish, bread, etc. it is believed that writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions because in the city life, transaction were made at different times. The ordinary writing material was a soft clay tablets. The signs on the clay tablets were impressed with a stylus having a triangular tip. This gave each stroke the shape of wedge, hence the whole system is called cuneiform or wedge shaped. By 2,600 BC, the letters became cuneiform and the language was Sumerian. The Akkadians adopted Sumerian script to represent their Semitic language, and the Babylonians and the Assyrians followed their example. The Assyrians added some two hundred new syllabic signs to those already in use. To learn to read and write the cuneiform script was a considerable achievement, and the script formed an important class in society. 

24. What are the uses of writing? 

Answer: The development of art of writing contributed to the development of literature. Most of the people recognised the value of writing for the preservation of history. Julius Caesar wrote history of his war in Gaul. Numerous scholars recorded the events of history in the ancient and medieval period. Winston Churchill wrote a lengthy history on Great Britain’s share of World War II. The great Indian freedom fighter Nehru, while in prison wrote to his daughter a long series of letters on world history. The art of writing has preserved the knowledge of every subject. Writing has now used not only for keeping record but also making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers. Writing was also used for keeping a historical record of the kings and announcing the changes a king had made in the customary law of the land. Cuneiform writing in the Akkadian language continued to be used until the first century BC which roughly means for about 2000 years. Writing has greatly helped in the spread of literacy mostly in the cities because the people in the early cities mostly belonged to professional classes and traders. The traders could better record their transactions in writing than in any other form. 25. Write an easy on the growth of early cities in Iraq. 

Answer: Mesopotamia is the land between Euphrates and Tigris. The archaeologists believed that city life began in Mesopotamia, part of modern Iraq. The Archaeologists hold that civilization appeared earlier in the southern Mesopotamia than anywhere else because urban settlement s, monumental architectures and writings were all in existence by 3,500 BC in Iraq. Some of the early cities which emerged in Mesopotamia were Urik, Amri, Tepe Gawra and Kerkuk. The cities appeared in Egypt and Indus Valley several centuries after Mesopotamia. In the Sumeria (Mesopotamia) there were 15 to 20 large cities, each surrounded by a smaller town, Villages and hamlets. In Egypt, people did not know of any cities of the early period. The Mesopotamia cities were different from the rigid, almost military looking cities of the Indus Valley cities. In contrast with the Indus Valley cities, the Mesopotamia cities had winding lanes. They appeared to have grown up as the circumstances required without the benefit of preconceived town planning. Towns elsewhere in Western Asia which arose rather later in the 2000 BC were more obviously based on those of Mesopotamia model. These cities developed around temples and were centres of long distance trade. 

26. Describe briefly the features of early cities. 

Answer: 

a) UR: It is one of the earliest cities of Mesopotamia excavated in 1830’s. Ordinary house of this city has narrow winding streets and irregular shapes and it indicates that there was no system of town planning. There was not drainage system. The omen tablets at UR have recorded many superstitions about the houses of this city. The UR town had a cemetery which consisted of royal and commoner’s graves. 

b) URUK: According to Archaeologists, this city grew to the enormous extent of 250 hectares around 3000 BC and by 2800 BC the city had extended to 400 hectares. Uruk consisted of defensive walls. There were technical advances at Uruk and bronze tools began to be use for various crafts. The architects learnt to construct bricks columns. Hundreds of people were employed to build the temple and the workers were paid rations. The temple halls had beautiful paintings. Uruk was a large and beautiful city, a trading centre and had flourishing industries. 

c) MARI: This is the capital city of the Mari kingdom flourished around 2000 BC. It was a trading town in a pastoral zone. Mari was a good example of an urban centre prospering on trade in wood, copper, tin, oil, and wine. The officers of the town of Mari inspect the cargo and levied taxes. The Akkadians, Assyrians, and Armenians also established their own kingdoms in this city and they also built a temple at Mari for Dagan god of steppe. King Zimrilim built a palace in the capital city of Mari with 260 rooms nad covered an area of 2.4 hectares. 

d) TEPE GAWRA: This town was excavated during 1932-1938. This city is situated in northern Iraq and lies between the Tigris River and the foothills of the Marros Mountains. Gawra was certainly a link in trade for Lapis lazuli and other exotic goods from the Zagros highlands from the Upper Tigris. The method of burial of the dead has helped the archaeologists to reconstruct the growth of the town of Tepe Gawra. The dead were buried either in built tombs made mud brick, in simple pits, vessels, pits with small walls at their backs and mud plaster lined pits along with articles or costly things. 

e) KERKUK CITY: Kerkuk city was built by king Nasirbal of Assyria between 884 and 858 BC as a military defence line. King Sluks built a strong rampart with 72 towers, two entries and 72 streets. Textiles were also manufactured here. It was a trade and export centre for the surrounding area’s agriculture product. 

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Chapter 2 Empires

 VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS: 

1. Who were Remulus and Remus brothers? 

Answer: Remulus and Remus were twin brothers who founded the city of Rome in the middle of eight century BC. 

2. When did Rome establish a Republic? 

Answer: 509 BC. 

3. Who was the first Roman monarch in 27 BC? 

Answer: Emperor Augustus. 

4. What was the original name of Augustus? 

Answer: Octavian. 

5. Give the name of any three monuments built by Augustus in the city of Rome. 

Answer: The Ara Pacis Augustus, the Stagnum and Euripus, then Pantheon and the Saepta Julia. 

6. Give the name of any four unworthy successors of Augustus. 

Answer: Tiberius, Calogula, Claudius, and Nero.

7. Who was Nero? 

Answer: Nero was one of the unworthy Roman Emperors and the last ruler of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. 

8. What were the names of two Roman Emperors during AD 248-337 who checked the decay of the Roman Empire? 

Answer: Emperor Diocletian and Emperor Constantine. 

9. Who transferred the capital of Roman Empire to Constantinople? 

Answer: Emperor Constantine. 

10. Which barbarians were the causes of fall of the Roman Empire? 

Answer: Germanic barbaric tribes under the leader of Odoacer. 

11. Give the name of the last West Roman Empire who was forced to abdicate? 

Answer: Romulus Augustus. 

12. What is the meaning of Pax Romana? 

Answer: The peace which existed between nationalities within the Roman Empire bought by roman rule or Roman Peace. 

13. What do you know about the Emperor Justinian? 

Answer: Emperor Justinian was also known as Justinian the Great, was the Eastern Roman emperor from 527to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized or restoration of the Empire. 

14. When did the Byzantine Empire come to an end? 

Answer: 1453. 15. Give the names of scholars who justified slaves? 

Answer: Plato, Aristotle, Saint Augustine, Thomas Aquinas. 

16. Which philosophical ideas contributed to the end of the system of slavery? 

Answer: Liberal, humanitarian and socialist ideas. 

17. Who was Spartacus? Answer: Spartacus was a Thracian gladiator, one of the escaped slaves of Roman Empire, who led a slave revolt against the Roman forces. 

18. When did Christianity become state religion in the Roman Empire? 

Answer: During the reign of Emperor Theodosius (379-395) 

19. Give the names of three classes in which the roman society was divided? 

Answer: Patricians, Plebeians and Slaves. 

20. Who were Patricians? 

Answer: The Patricians were Rome’s earliest descendent and they were highest and wealthiest of the Social classes. 

21. What technique of architecture influenced most of the Roman architecture? 

Answer: Greek technique of architecture. 

22. What was the official language of the Roman Empire? 

Answer: Latin language. 

23. Give the name of famous Roman thinkers and Scholars. 

Answer: Cicero, Vigil, Julius Caesar, Horace. 

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS: 

24. Describe the economic reforms of Augustus. 

Ans: Augustus imposed a regular census to provide a fair assessment of the tax burden, resulting in a fairer collection of tax revenue. Augustus provided for complete reforms of financial structure. The central treasury was linked to the treasuries of all the provinces. Together with the expansion and improvement of Roman coinage, a poll tax and a land tax were created which completely funded the imperial system. These new system provided a stimulus to trade throughout the empire, leading to stability, security and prosperity. 25. Describe the progress of art and culture during the rule of Augustus. Ans: Emperor Augustus became the pre-eminent patron of arts and architecture. During his reigns, he built the Ara Pacis Augustae, The Stagnum and Euripus, the Pantheon and the Saepta Julia. Throughout, the Augustus style is a mixture of conservatism and Innovations and often strives for Greek look. Augustus reign was an era of Rome’s most famous and influential writers including Vergil, Horace, Ovid Properties and Tibullus in poetry and Livy in prose. Fergil, in particular, wrote a national epic for the Romans in the “ Aeneid ‘. The most famous literary, artistic patron of his day was C. Maccenas- A close associate of Augustus. The Augustian literary scene was also exceptionally bright. 

26. How Diocletian and Constantine checked the decay of the fall of Roman Empire? 

Ans: Emperors Diocletian and Constantine made desperate attempts to strengthen the empire to avoid civil wars; law regulated the succession to the throne. The government was made full –fledge despotism. The emperor had to be worshipped like a god by his subject and a great army of spies and secret agents was organised to check the secret activities of the people. They also adopted the policies of controlling prices, interest rates and export prohibition on strategic products such as iron, bronze, weapons, army equipments and horse. Constantine required every soldier’s son to be a soldier unless unfit for service. Agricultural labourers were tied to the land on a permanent and hereditary basis. Despotism was also applied to the economic system. Regulation of lives of the people was as extreme as totalitarian system was set up. The measures of Diocletian and Constantine halted to some extent the civil war and the economic deterioration. 

27. How far were the German barbarians responsible for the fall of the West Roman Empire? 

Ans: Rome had tangled with Germanic tribes for centuries, but by the 300s “barbarians” group like Goths had encroached beyond the Empire’s borders. The Roman weathered a Germanic uprising in the late 4 th century, but in 410 the Visigoth king Alaric successfully sacked the city of Rome. The empire spent next several decades under constant threat before the eternal city was raided again in 455, this time by the Vandals. Finally, in 476, the Germanic leader Odoacer staged a revolt and deposed the emperor Romulus Augustus. 

28. Describe the legacy of the west Roman Empire. 

Ans: Despite its fall, the west Roman Empire has left a rich legacy. More apparent are the materials remains – the amphitheatres, arenas, temples, roads, bridges and its linguistic in the form of Romanized language of Europe. The Roman law is very much alive in the legal systems of many countries of Europe and America. The organisations and the rituals of the Roman Catholic Church owe much to the Roman imperial structure and religious traditions. Finally, the Pax Romana which had brought two centuries of relative peace and prosperity left a tradition of Imperial unity. 

29. Describe the slave rebellion led by Spartacus? 

Ans: In the first century, the position of slaves remained just as miserable as before. Ultimately, this led the slaves to wage a struggle against the slave owners. In 74 BC, some gladiators hatched a conspiracy in the city of Capua against the slave owners. But the slave owner came to know about the conspiracy however, few dozens of the members of the conspiracy escaped and they found refuge at Mt. Vesuvius. The escaped slaves elected a Thracian gladiator, Spartacus as their leader. The brave slaves attacked Roman slave-owners’ estate and caravans and captured weapons. Slave from surrounding areas also began to join Spartacus. The slaves routed out another three thousands Roman warriors and the news spread throughout the country. Many thousand slaves assembled under Spartacus leadership. Spartacus introduced harsh discipline. When the Roman slave-owners came to know about the march of the slaves under Spartacus in the valley of the River Po, Many slave owners went to fight under the commander, Marcus LIcinus Crassus. Spartacus led his army to the south of Italy because he did not have enough forces to take Rome but it was blocked by Crassus and the slaves defeated armies standing on the way. Spartacus reached south western Italy with his troops but failed to reach Sicily. Crassus didn’t attack Spartacus and occupied only the narrow isthmus. The Roman soldiers dug a moat and erected a mud wall here to trap the rebels. Spartacus insurgents filled up the moat when they attack the fortification and burst out of trap. Crassus attacked them by surprise and massacred them all. 

30. How were the Christians persecuted by the Roman Emperor? 

Ans: Romans followed the principle that all gods are true but the Christian insisted that no god was true except their own and that worship of Roman gods was pagan and it would lead them to hell. For it Roman retaliates by persecution. The persecution increased when the Christians criticised the military service, gladiatorial contests, slavery etc. The Christians were persecuted during the time of kings Nero, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius. In third century AD, persecution by the state became more systematic. Decius killed and banished hundred of Christian who refused to appear before the magistrate and make sacrifice to Roman gods. Valerian intensified persecutions to prevent many of the upper class Roman from joining the Christian order. Diocletian in 303 AD purged the army of Christians, burned Christian books, and removed all Christian from public offices and freeing of Christian slaves. 

31. Describe the contributions of the Romans to government and politics. 

Ans: Roman political thinkers such as Ceciro contributed the germinal ideas about the theory of government. They gave the theory of popular of popular sovereignty, the principle of separation of powers and the concept that law must be the paramount rule in the government. One of the most important contributions of the Romans to government and politics was the Roman law. It is the basis of the present law codes in Italy, France, Spain, Scotland, Latin America, Louisiana and Japan. The Romans gave to civilisation the outstanding progressive idea of human rights when they established the legal principle that a man accused of crime is innocent until proved guilty. A great mass of laws were finally officially collected and codified, that is, reduced to simple principles in the later period of the empire. This proved to be one of the greatest milestones in human progress and many nations use it as a guide even today. 

EASSY TYPE QUESTIONS: 

32. Describe the achievements of Emperor Augustus. 

Answer: Augustus founded the Roman Empire and was its first Emperor: He defeated the forces of Cleopatra and Antony. This made Octavian Rome’s undisputed ruler. In 27 BC, he restored back the power of Roman Senate though in reality he remained the de facto emperor of the Empire. And the senate conferred him with the new title of Augustus. He is credited with founding Roman Empire. He was primarily responsible for the two centuries long Pax Romana: Augustus initiated a period of relative peacefulness and minimal expansion in the Roman Empire which lasted for over two centuries from 27 BC to 180 AD and is known as PAX ROMANA or Roman peace. He is credited for ensuring durable peace in the Roman Empire through his administrative genius and reforms which brought stability and prosperity. Augustus oversaw the renewal and repair of numerous temples across his empire, and initiated projects to build many more. He worked towards renewing the trust for people in the traditional gods to revive the spirit of Rome. Augustus period also saw the return of many of the old, popular festivals. Augustus established a very effective financial system in his empire. He imposed consistent direct taxation on the provinces in the Empire such as a poll tax and land tax. It greatly increased Rome’s net revenue and established a stable relationship between Rome and its provinces. Augustus abolished private tax farming and replaced it with salaried civil service tax collectors. His monetary reforms led to expansion in trade. Augustus also transformed the appearance of Rome with massive building projects such as Forum of Augustus, temple of Mars Ultor, Ara Pacis, temple of Apollo Palatinus etc. he secured order and protection of Rome by instituting police and fire-fighting forces. He built a state run courier services based on relays stations. Emperor Octavian made the prefect a permanent office to effectively administer Rome. 32. How did Christianity spread in the Roman Empire? Answer: Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, which granted the Christians freedom of worship, removal of legal disabilities, and the restoration of all confiscated property. Constantine pro-Christian policy helped conversion among the upper classes of Roman society. The emperor also took steps to convert the conservative peasantry who worshipped man-made pagan gods and goddesses. He made observation of Sunday obligatory, build new churches, dedicated the new city of Constantinople to the Blessed Virgin, granting alms to poorer congregations, exempted Christian priests from political obligations and compulsory labours participated actively in the church councils and helped to enforce the decisions of this councils. Under Constantine, it became increasingly difficult to be anything than Christian. Constantine successors took more direct steps against paganism. Death penalty was imposed on those who performed pagan sacrifices. Pagan priests were deprived of exemption and privileges. Non believers in Christianity were driven into exile. They could not make wills or inherit property. Finally, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the state religion and Catholicism the only religious faith in the empire. 

33. Examine the causes of the fall of the West Roman Empire. 

Answer: The causes of the fall of the West Roman Empire were given below: 

a) INVASIONS BY BARBARIAN TRIBES: Rome had tangled with Germanic tribes for centuries, but by 300s, barbarian groups like the Goths had encroached beyond the Empire’s borders. The Romans crushed a Germanic uprising in the late fourth century, but in 410 the Visigoth King Alaric successfully sacked the city of Rome. The Roman Empire spent the next several decades under constant threat before the “the Eternal City” was raided again in 445, by the Vandals. Finally, in 476, the Germanic leader Odoacer staged a revolt and deposed the Emperor Romulus Augustuslus which gave a deathblow to the Roman Empire. 

b) ECONOMIC TROUBLES AND OVERRELIANCE ON SLAVE LABOR: Constant wars and over spending had significantly lightened imperial coffers, and oppressive taxation and inflation had widened the gap between rich and poor. Rome’s economy depend on slaves to tilt its field and work as craftsmen, but now the Empire faced labour deficit because expansion came to halt in the second century, Rome’s supply of slaves and other war treasures began to dry up. A further blow came in the fifth century, when the Vandals claimed North Africa and began disrupting Roman trade. 

c) THE RISE OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE: In the late third century, the Roman Empire was divided into two halves-the western Empire seated in the city of Milan, and the Eastern Empire in Byzantine. But over time the two halves drifted apart. East and West failed to work adequately together to check outside threats and the two often squabbled over resources and military aid. Most importantly, the strength of the Eastern Empire served to divert Barbarians invasions to the west. The Eastern was fortified and well guarded, but Italy and the city of Rome were left vulnerable. The Western political structure would finally disintegrate in the 5th century. 

d) OVER EXPANSION AND MILITARILY OVERSPENDING: The Roman Empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean all the way to the Euphrates River in the Middle East, but its grandeur may have also been its downfall. With such a vast territory to govern, the Empire faced an administrative and logistical nightmare. Communication became ineffective due to its vast territory. Roman struggled enough to maintain its huge military to defend its frontiers. As more and more funds were spent for military upkeep of the Empire, the technological advancement was slowed and Rome civil structure fell into disrepair. 

e) GOVERNMENT CORRUPTION AND POLITICAL INSTABILITRY: Being a Roman Emperor had always been a particularly a dangerous job. Civil wars thrust the Empire into chaos; more than 20 men took the throne in the span of only 75 years, usually after the murder of their predecessor. The emperor-bodyguards assassinated and installed new sovereigns at will, and once auctioned off to the highest bidder. Even the Roman Senate was full corruption and they were incompetence. Roman citizens lost trust in their leadership. 

f) THE ARRIVAL OF THE HUNS AND THE MIGRATION OF THE BARBARIAN TIRBES: Due to the Huns’ invasion of Europe in the late fourth century, they drove many Germanic tribes to the borders of the Roman Empire. The Roman treated them with extreme cruelty. When the oppression became too much to bear, the Goths rose up in revolt and killed eastern Emperor Valens in 378 AD. Again in 410 AD, the Goths king Alaric moved west and sacked Rome. With the Western Empire weakened, Germanic tribes like the Vandals and the Saxons cross its borders and occupy Britain, Spain and North Africa. 

g) WEAKENING OF THE ROMAN LEGIONS: For most of its history, Rome’s military was the envy of the ancient world. But the makeup of the once mighty legions began to change. Unable to recruit soldiers from the Roman citizenry, emperor like Diocletian and Constantine recruited foreign mercenaries. The ranks of the legions eventually swelled with Germanic Goths and other barbarians. While these Germanic proved to be fierce warriors, they also had little or no loyalty to the emperor, and their power-hungry officers often turned against their Roman employers. In fact, many of the barbarians who sacked the city of Rome and brought down the Western Roman Empire had earned military stripes while serving in the Roman legions

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Chapter 3 Nomadic Empires

Q.1. Why was trade Significant to the Mongols?  

Ans :- Trade was significant to the Mongols because : 

( i ) Some of the Mongols were pastoralists while others were hunter- gatherers Unlike the Turks they did not take to farming. So to obtain farm products they had to depend upon trade. 

( ii ) The Mongols namodised in steppes of central Asian is tract of land of the modern state of Mongolia There were extreme of temperatures in the entire region horse long waters followed by brief, dry summers. Agriculture was possible only in the pastoral regions during short parts of the year, but since they did not take to agriculture, they had to obtain agriculture products through trade. 

( iii ) Scant resources the steppe tends drave the Mongols and other Ludaleo central Asian nomads to trade and barter with their sedentary iw esi neighbour china. 

( iv )Trade was mutually beneficial to both the Mongols and their donin Chinese neighbour. Mongols exchanged their horses, fars and game steppe for agricultural produce and iron utensils from China. 

Q.2. Why did Genghis Khan feel the need to fragment the Mongol tribes into new social and military groupings?

Ans :- Genghis Khan felt the need to fragment the Mongol trees, alter the old steppe social order by integrating different lineages and military grouping because 

( i ) He wanted to control and discipline his nomadie lords 

( ii ) He wonted to make them into a fighting machine with a destructive power, and insure success of his furniture campaign. 

( iii ) He wanted complete commitment forestall any possibility of revolt or threat to his authority by replacing rights of old chieftains derived from being clan chieftains by the new aristocracy which derived its status from its progenitor, Genghis khans. 

( iv ) Wanted to appreciate and publicly acclaim some of those individual who had served him with loyalty through grave adversity for many years. 

( v ) Include within his confederacy groups like the Turkic Ulghurs who had accepted his authority willingly and accommodate, defeated people like the kerrits. 

Q.3. How do later Mongol reflection in the yasa bring out the uneasy relationship they had with the memory of Genghis Khan?

Ans :- The Yasa the code of law that Genghis Khan was supposed to have promulgated, as per the few details that are available concerned administrative regulations the organization of hunt, the army. and the postal system-traditions of the different Mongol tribes. By the middle of the 13th century the Mongols emerged as a unified people and just created the largest empire the world had ever seen. They rule over very sophisticated urban societies with their respective histories, cultures and laws. Although the Mongols dominated the region politically they were a numerical minority moreover, Genghis Khan had condemned the people of Bukhara in the “Yesa” and called them sinners. This created a lot of hardship for the Successors. Keeping in mind the memory of Genghis khan led to uneasy relations. 

The later Mongols could neither apply the harsh rules of Genghis Khan on their subjects as they themselves get sedentarised nor could they condemn the harsh rules of their ancestor this led to uneasy relations. 

By referring to “Yasa” as Genghis Khans code of law; the Mongols tried to over come their uneasiness by laying claim to a law giver like moses and solomon. 

Moreover, the yasa served to cohere the Mongol people around a body of shared beliefs it acknowledged their affinity to Genghis khan and his descendents and gave them the confidence to retain their identity and impose their law on defeated subjects, vital is the construction of a Mongol universal dominion. 

Q.4. If history relies upon written records produced by city based literates, nomadic society with always receive a hostile representation would you agree in its this Sen statement? Does it explain the reason why Persian chronicles produced such inflated figures of companies resulting from Mongol campaigns? 

Ans :- There is substantial truth is the above statement because, since di the normal Societies for example, the Mongols produced little literature of their own and were instead written about by literati from foreign cultural milieus who were ignorant and biased about nomadic life the only image that appear of Genghis Khan in our imagination are those of a conqueror the destroyer of cities, and tell an individual who was responsible for the death of thousands of people “They came, they limited the walls, they burnt, they slew, ba they plundered and they departed. 

Yet, it must be noted for Mongols Genghis Khan was the greatest Lan leader of all time fashioned a grand trans continental empire, restored trade routes, and markets that attracted distant travelers like Marlo Polo. The sheer size of Mongol dominion, the diverse body of people and faith that it embraced, and the ideologies models that it provided for later regions seen to be just wiped under by persian chronicles today in independent Mongolia Genghis Khan has appeared as income figure of the Mongol people. 

ANSWER IN SHORT ESSAY

Q.5. Keeping the nomadic element of the Mongol and Bedouin societies in mind how in your opinion, did their respective historical experiences differ? What explanations would you suggest account for these differences? 

Ans :-  Nomads are quite essential wonderers, organized in family assemblies with a relatively undifferentiated economic life and rudimentary systems of political organization. But both the Arab of nomads of Arabian peninsula and the Mongol nomadic groups of central Asia established vast empires. 

The Mongols they sought to assert an china Iran and Eastern aid Europe. Increasing contact with other countries led to sedentarisation of these nomadic societies, transforming their aait traditional and political ways and laying foundations of stable military system and governance. 

Unlike Bedouin Arabs the Mongols brought to spirituality with alt them. They were tolerant of all religious, and never let their personal beliefs and steppe way of life dictate public policy. 

It was the Mongol policy to build on local traditions once they had subjected an area. Their was a multiethnic, multilingual, Multi religious region that did not feel threatened by its pluralistic constitution. 

Though by the century all four Mongol empire had converted to AIslam the main ideology of their states was Mongolism which is glorified the imperial and Military might of the Mongols and 2ut dreamed world conquest, The whole state was run on military se lines. The monarch was commander in chief,. The capital was where ever the Khan and his army happened to be encamped. There were two chief political objectives, hegemony and perpetuation of the rling dynasty, which justify any cruelty. There was a continuation of militarisation of society that had occurred in the final years of the Abbasid caliphate. Their political structures were enduring as they influenced later Mughol empire.

Q.6. How does the following account enlarge upon character of the park Mongolica created by the Mongols by the middle of the thirteenth century? 

Ans :- The above account well depicts the character of for Mongolia created by the Mongols in 13 th Century. 

( i ) It becomes clear from the incident of louis IX of France sending Mark Williams of fabricate as an ambassador to the Mongol emperor Mongole that the Mongols were liberal in their religious obiw beliefs, never let their personal beliefs dictate public policy and maintained cordial relations with their neighbour. 

( ii ) The meeting of Rubric with a woman from Lorraine, in the service of one of the princes wives reflects, the Mongols recruited people of all ethnic group and religious. 

( iii ) The fact that at the court festivals the Nestorian priests were admitted first with their religion followed by Muslim clergy and Buddhists and Taoist monks are pointers to the multiethnic, Multilingual, Multireligious, regime that did not feel threatened by its pluralistic constitution. The Mongol empire embraced diverse body of people and faiths, an alertly unusual ideology for its time yes, it need be noted despite the fact that the empire eventually altered in its different milieus, the inspiration of the founder remained a powerful force. The Mongols provided ideological models for later regimes like the Mughals of India to follow, Timur another Monads who aspired to universal domination when he bo declared his independent sovereignty it was as the son-in law of the Genghis Khans family. 

Today after decades of soviet control of the country of Mongolia en is recreating is identity and has seized upon Genghis Khan as an iconic figure to mobilize memories a great post and forging of national identity.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Discuss how Genghis Khan’s world systematically erases the old tribal identities of different groups who joined his confederacy? 

Ans :- Genghis Khan world to systematically erase the old tribal identities . 

( i ) Genghis Khan stopped the practice of insistence of clan and tribes within the decimal units of the army . 

( ii ) The divided the old tribal groupings and distributed their numbers in to new military units.

( iii ) Any individual who tried to move from this allotted groups without permission received harsh punishment . 

( iv ) The largest unit of soldiers -10,000 included fragmented groups people from a variety of different tribes and clans instead of tribes and clan identities the units had new identity derived from its progenitor . 

( v ) Ranking did not preserve the rights of old chieftains the new aristocracy derived its status from a close relationship with the great khans of the Mongols . 

( vi ) The composition of the army was no longer of a relatively small undifferentiated body but included heterogeneous mass of people groups like Turkish olghurs who had accepted his authority and defeated people like bereits . 

( vii ) Administrators were included from conquered societies . 

( viii ) Their was a multiethnic , multilingual , multireligious regions and it provided ideological models for later regimes like the Mughals . 

Q.2 . Write a short note on the courier system developed by Mongols . 

Ans :- ( i ) The courier System was called ” Yam ” 

( ii ) It was an important factor in enabling Mongols administer their note empire as it connected and enabled communication with the far flung areas of the empire across continental landmass . 

( iii ) Under the system tresh mounts and despatch riders were placed in out posts at regular distances.  

(iv) Genghis Khan fashioned the courier System, which was later refined after his death.  

( v ) To maintain the system a special tax called qub car tax was levied on Mongol nomads.  

Q.3.  Give two important changes after Genghis Khan Support them with examples.  

Ans :- Two important changes after Genghis Kahn :- 

( i ) Genghis Khan had envisaged that his sons would rule the empire collectively.  The “celus” thus did not originally mean any fixed territories but after him by mid 13th century the sense of common patrimony shared by all brothers was gradually replaced by individual dynastic each ruling their separate “Ulus a term which now carried the sense of a  example, defendants of josh formed the golden horde and ruled the Russian steppes, to descendents of toluy – formed the yuan and II Khavid dynasties and came to rule both china and Iran. 

( ii ) There was increasing pressure to sendentarise.  

( a ) in 1230 after the successful war against chin dynasty in North China there was a strong pressure group within the Mongol leadership that advocated massacre of all peasantry and the conversion of their fields in to posture lands, But in 1270 when south china was for  annexed after defeat of sung dynasty.Kublai Khan grandson of to Genghis Khan appeared in 1924 as the protector of the peasants and the cities. 

( b ) In 1290 the Mongol rule  of grons Ghazan Khan descendant of Genghis Khan’s son Today warned family members and other generals to avoid pillaging the peasantry as it did not lead to a stable prosperous realm.  

Q.4. Briefly discuss the factors responsible for the decline of the Mengol Empire.  

Ans :- Awong the factors responsible for the decline of the Mongol Empire in the late 14th century were.

( i ) The gradual separation of the descendents of Genghis Khan in to separate lineage groups and alternatives in post family concordance . 

( ii ) Competition amongst cousin clans as presented by the Tomyid branch . 

( iii ) The pressure to sedentarise in the new areas of Mongol domicile and contradiction between nomadic and sedentary elements . 

( iv ) Failure of conquered people to feel a sense of affinity with their new nomadic masters . 

( v ) During campaigns in the first half or the 13th century cities were destroyed , agricultural lands laid waste , trade and handicrafts production disrupted . Thousands of people were killed and even more enslaved . 

Q.5 . Genghis Khan’s military achievements were largely a result of his ability to innovate and transform different aspects of steppe came out into extremely effective military strategies . 

Ans :-  ‘The military achievements or Genghis Khan were astonishing and largely a result of his ability to innovate and steepe combat.

( i ) The horse riding skills of the Mongols and turks were streamlined to provide speed and mobility to the army . 

( ii ) Rapid shooting skills of the archers while on horse back were perfected during hunting expeditions which doubled as field maneuvers . 

( iii ) The tradition of steppe cavalry to travel light , knowledge of terrain and the weather was used to carry out campaigns in the depth of to winter 

( iv ) Frozen rivers were used as highways to enemy cities and camps . 

( v ) Nomads conventional inability against fortified encampments were overcome by Genghis Khan’s learning and putting to use siege engines and depth bombardment techniques . Engineers were instructed to prepare light portable equipment with devastating effect so as not to hinder mobility and speed of the army .

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Chapter 4 The Three Orders

                                        TEXTUAL QUESTION & ANSWER

Q.1 . Describe two features of early feudal society in France . 

Ans :- The term feudalism is used to describe the economic legal , political and social relationship that existed in Europe is the Medieval ear . The two features of early feudal society in France coerce the politico – socio and economic relation ship between the three orders i.e. 

( i ) The Socio – Politico hierarchy of lord vassal. 

( ii ) The feudal mode of production . 

( a ) Lord Vassal Hierarchy :- This was a hierarchical structure where by the big landowner derived their authority directly from the king were vassals of the king and the peasants were vassals of the landowners . 

This distribution of authority formed the basis of the political system . The basis of this relationship was a mutual promise : the seigneur / lord would protect the vassel , who in turn would be loyal to him 

The integral part of this relationship was that the lord was the provide for maintenance of the vassel .

( b ) The Feudal mode of production :- The other defining feature of feudalism was transition from slave mode of production to feudal mode of production . The Agrarian economy was dominated by big landed estates of feudal lords . A manor was sum of all land in the area over which lord had rights . It was divided into two parts. One part was directly under the lord , the other compassed of peasant holdings . The part directly under the lord was cultivated by serfs . Serfs received no wages and all the produce of their hard work went to the lord . The part including peasant holdings was cultivated by the peasants who were regarded as tenants and therefore had to pay rent . They paid rent in the form of labour services for the lord called labour rent . 

Q.2 . How did the long term changes in populations level effect economy and society in Europe ? 

Ans :- Population had a profound impact on the economy and society in Europe . The general pattern was agricultural growth , Sizeable increase in population, foot shortages , famine demographic , crisis and decline of population , equilibrium and repetition of the same or cycle . 

In the mid 19th century there was steady growth of population . Then in 1000 population from 42 million to 62 million around 1200 and 73 million . This demographic change was due to member of factors , chief among them being revival of agrarian economy which could sustain the greater population , technological charges and relative peace . 

The increase of population solved the problem of labour. As more and more dependent peasants become subject to cords , there was an increase in volume of surplus available to the feudal aristocracy . However a fall out of this was after 1800 the feudal economy became technologically stagnant as lords were no longer inclined to invest is better techniques . 

A parallel development was the growth of money economy . The need of the lands and peasants to sell surplus and purchase uncuries

as well as goods led to growth of urban centers.  The lords started increasingly extracting rent in terms of money instead of labor services.  The gradual monetization of economy led to commodity productions 

Population growth initially a favorable factor for expansion of agrarian economy led to scarcity of land in relation to labor and lords demand for higher rent.  There was an increase in production, but at was not enough to feed the entire population food available for each individual was declining and also food was not distributed equitably.  Continuous cultivation reduced productivity in the long run.  Production staganented and than declined.  Population growth was outstripping resources.  This led to famine.  Severe famines affected Europe in 1315 and 1317.  Around the same time in 1347-1350 bubonic plague broke out.  Ho Europe’s population declined due to the epidemic.  

Depopulation resulted is shortage labor wage rates increased aby so much as 25% in England.  Agricultural prices came down and income of lords was hit.  They tried to revert from money contracts to labor services, which led to peasant revolts and to rebellions.  E.e.  1323 Flanders, 1358 France 1381 England.  

This played a key role is the dissolution of the feudal system and growth of monarchy.

Q.3. Why did knights become a distinct group, and when did they decline?  

Ans :- Following the decline of Roman Empire there was a lack of unifying force and military conflict was frequent.  The amateuare peasant soldiers were no longer sufficient and good cavalry was needed.  There was a transition to cavalry based army consisting of professional mounted warriors called knights.

The knights were linked to the nobles by the same promising del relationship between king and lord . The lord gave the knight a piece of land called ” fief ” and promised to protect it . The fief could be inherited . The land of fief was cultivated by peasants . In exchange the knights paid the lord a regular fee and promised to fight for him in war . 

Thus , the urgent need for military mobilization not only to fight wars but also to ensure surplus extraction led to growth of knights . 

The growth of absolutist monarchy in the 15 and 16 centuries led to the decline of knights . The knights were replaced by professionally trained infantry equipped with guns and artillery directly under kings control . The organization of a standing army led to the decline of knights . 

Q.4 . What was the function of Medieval monasteries ? 

Ans :- Some deeply religious people chose to live isolated lives in contrast to clerics who live amongst people is towns and villages . These people lived in religious communities called abbeys or monasteries after away from human habitation . 

Example :- st Benedict ,, Italy 529 and Cluny , Burgundy 910 . Monasteries comprised of Monks who could be man or woman brie who took vows to remain in the abbey for the rest of their life and to spend time in prayer , study and Manual labour . The monasteries were single sex communities . Over time Monasteries of several 100’s with buildings estates , Schools , Colleges and Hospitals . Apart from prayer the Monasteries taught self discipline through its rules and restraint . They were centers of learning , helped is spread of education and provision of facilities like health care . 

It was a world within a world Isolated but self sufficient . It made a great contribution to development of art e.g. Abbess Hildegard helped is the development of music . 

In the 13 century some monks became friars , moved from place to place instead of being confined to the monastery spreading the evangelical message , preaching and living on charity . 

ANSWER IN SHORT

Q.5 . Imagine and describe a day in life of a craftsman in a Medieval France town. 

Ans :- Points of Reference :-

( i ) Majority of the people in Medieval France belonged to the 3rd order . 

( ii ) Compared to cultivators free peasants and serfs , craftsman the France town were free from lords control . 

( iii ) Prior to 12th century traveled from manor to manor but after 12th century because crafts and commerce began to grow in France , he settled in one place where goods could be exchanged for food . 

( iv ) By 12th century craftsmen were organized into guilds .

( v ) Guilds guarded the interests of the craftsman regulated quality prices wages, working conditions , apprenticeship and prevented unfair practices . 

( vi ) Compared to the peasant , towns air made the crafts . 

Q.6. Compare the conditions of life of a French serf . 

Ans :- ( i ) Conditions of life of French serf :- Serf in France were the lowest category of peasants . They were most numerous in feudal society . Serfs were dependent peasants . They had to do what the feudal lords demanded of them . They were tied to the land and subject to complete authority of the lord . They cultivated places of land which belonged to the lord . Much of the produce form this land was given to the lord. They received no wages and could not leave without the lord’s permission . They could marry but the lord decided who they could .Serfdom was a defining feature of feudal mode of production , The most significant features was the coercion that the lord could exercise over the serfs . 

(ii) Conditions of life of a Roman Slave :- Roman Slaves were regarded as a form property . They were treated as objects or commodities which could be bought and sold in the market . They had no right . They were degraded to the extent that they were often not even seen as humans beings . The authority of the master over the slave was absolute slavers retained no kinship his and maintained no families . They only relation they had , was with the master which was one of complete subjugation . They had no identity of their own. Slave labour was found in every sector of the Roman economy of especially agriculture mining and handicrafts . Infact Grace co – Roman Society is often termed as slave society slave mode of production because slaves were son employed on large scale in production .

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Chapter 5 Changing Cultural Traditions

 TEXTUAL QUESTION & ANSWER

Q.1.Which elements Greek and Roman culture were revived in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries ? 

Ans :- Elements of Greek and Roman culture were revived in 14th and 15th Centuries . 

( i ) Written works / Literature :- The Universities that arose in odna Bologna took deep interest in the literature Greeks and Romans Writers like Francesco Patriarch stressed on the reading of the Greco Roman works with a focus on cultural traditions . Infact , it was this focus on grammar , rhetoric , poetry , history , and moral philosophy which led to shift from religion and dogmatic thought to debate and discussion . The Study of ancient Greek and Roman literature laid for the development of humanism . The term was derived from the Latin word humanities used by the Roman lawyer cicero centuries ago . 

( ii ) Humanism :- That arose in the 14th and 15th centuries centered on skills of individuals developed by debate and discussion and owed much to the humanis elements emphasized in Greek and Roman thought . The focus was on individual . 

The humanist idea of True civilization reflected revival of Greek and Roman culture . Humanists believed they had restored civilization . With men’s minds free to learn, develop new skills and interests just like learning had been emphasised in the Greek and Roman period . Infact , they regarded the intermediate period middle ages between the two civilization as Dark age , as the church had complete control over peoples mind . 14th and 15th centuries saw a revival of philosophy the works of Socrates , plato , Aristotle represented classical Greek philosophy , They were translated by Arabs and made widely available . 

Similarly , works in mathematics , natural science , astronomy , medicine and chemistry were also translated and there was further development in these field e.g. vesalius in the 16th century . A professor of medicine was first to dissect Harman body and this led to growth of modern philosophy . 

This contributed to the growth of rational thought . 

( iii ) Art :- 14th and 15th centuries also saw a revival of Greek and Roman . The fragments of Roman art were carefully studied especially the proportionate figures of human sculptures . This can be seen in the works of Donate llo who made life like statues in 1416. Painters too tried to paint as realistically . This also led to anatomy geometry , and physics combining with art to mark beginning of a new style “ realism ‘ where art is as life like as possible . Humanist thought was reflected in art by focussing on the individual man . Man was regarded as the best creation e.g. Leonard da Vinci , Raphel etc. 

( iv ) Architecture :- There was a revival of old imperial Roman style or classical Roman Architecture in Italian buildings in the 15th and 16 centuries . The new buildings copied many features of ancient Roman architecture . I.e. buildings more decorated with paintings , sculptures and reliefs . 

Q.2 . Compare details of Italian Architecture of this period with Islamic Architecture . 

Ans :- ( i ) Italian Architecture was a revival of classical Roman Architecture . 

( ii ) The specimens of this architecture are found in churches , palaces , and forts e.g. st . peters church , Rome , st . Pauls church , Londas , Palace of Spain Healdsburg Fort of Germany . 

( iii ) Italian Architecture was marked by decorations using paintings , sculpture , and various art forms.e.g . Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine chapel in the Vatican . He decorated the ceiling in mine panels during from Christian mythology but given is intense human interpretation like in last judgment , fall of man 

( iv ) The paintings were marked by an emphasis on man’s physical existence and not God . The artists depicted beauty of the physical world and humans as perfect beings . Even Jesus and many were depicted as loving human beings and not as religious symbols e.g. In Michelangelo’s pieta there was representation of Mary with dead Jesus across her knees . 

Islamic Architecture :-

( i ) The specimens of Islamic architecture were mosques , shrines and tombs seen in Spain central Asia. It was predominantly religious bir architecture , though there were also caravan sarais , hospitals , palaces . 

( ii ) The basic design comprised of arches , domes minarets , and open courtyard . 

( iii ) The mosques were designed according to the spiritual needs of Muslims . There was an open courtyard ( sahn ) leading to a hall to accommodate long time of worshippers , inside the hall there was a ‘ niche ‘ ( Mihrab ) indicating direction of Mecca and a pulpit ( Minbar ) from where sermons were given.

( iv ) For designs and ornamentations living beings could not be represented calligraphy and arabesque were used . 

Q.3. Why were Italian towns the first to experience of the Ideas of humanism ? 

Ans :- Italian cities were the first of experience humanism because of certain Specific reasons –

( i ) Rise of cities and trade :- The fall of the Roman Empire had led to a decline of Italy, It become divided and fragmented unlike western Europe unified by the church, and Eastern Europe by the Byzantine Empire however from this weak and fragmented Italy arose cities like Venice, Florence, Milan Naples , Genoa due to expansion of trade between Byzantines Empire and Islamic countries . These Italian towns were nodal points in the trade across the Mediterranean. They represented the political facet of Renaissance . I.e replacement of Universal empires with independent towns . 

( ii ) Middle class and idea of citizenship :- In Italian cities the clergy was not dominant neither were the feudal lords . Rich merchants and bankers actively participated in governances . This led to citizenship and a sense of pride . This was a precursor of the growth of middle class which facet of Renaissance . 

( iii ) Patronage to Art and literature :- The rulers of Italian cities were great patron of scholars and artists . This led to the revival of Greek and Roman art architecture and literature and marked Renaissance e.g. in Florence . 

( iv ) Universities :- Italian cities were the first to see a rise of Universities in Europe eg . University of Padua and Bologna. These universities were centers of humanist thought. There the focus was on studying other religions. Law philosophy, history was taught with an emphasis on individual silks and through debate and discussion. 

( v ) Migration of Greek Scholars to Italy :- When Constantinople was conquered by the Turks the Greek scholars migrated to Italy with their manuscripts and art treasures . They created new spirit and interests for the old classics . Remarkable masterpieces of art and literature were produced under their guidance . These started a reaction against medievalism and this factor also greatly helped the growth of renaissance in Italy.

Q.4 . Compare the Venetian idea of good government with those in contemporary France . 

Ans :- Venice was a city-state in Italy where a republican government was established in the 15the century. Here religious heads and sit feudal lords were not powerful. Here rich merchants and Bankers participated in the city’s government. 

According to the contemporary writer cardinal Gaspero Centurial (1488-1542), the entire authority was in hands of a council whose members were gentlemen above the age of 25 years. Thus the administration was in the hands of common people noble by birth or enabled by virtue. 

This greatly helped in the development of notices of citizenship and later nationalism. 

France –The politico-administrative system in contemporary console France under Charles VIII and Louis XI was an absolute Monarchy. The power of the noble was limited and a standing etuto army was maintained. The king was at the center of an elaborate Patron client relationship. This patronage ensured cooperation of different sections of society and maintained king power. The king also claimed divine rights kingship with an army, an instrument of despotism. The focus was on war and conquests. There was little participation of the people. In theorizing of Louis XIII of France in 1614, a meeting was held of the Estates-General (The French consultative ASsociation comprising of the Three orders/Estates Clergy, nobility and the vest. After this it was not summoned for about two centuries. This clearly shows there was no involvement and representation of the people in governance. 

ANSWER IN SHORT

Q.5. What were the features of humanist thought? 

Ans :- Humanism is derived from Latin word “Humanities” which mean culture. Humanist thought consciously reemphasized religion focussing on skills developed by individuals through debate and discussion. The focus was an all that was human as distinct from device. Humanism was a systems of thought which extolled man. stressed his north and dignity, expressed faith in his creative potential. It stood for freedom and rights of the individual. 

Humanist thought was reflected in the contemporary view of history, in ast and architecture. 

Humanists regarded themselves as restoring true civilization or beginning of modern age vis-avis the preceding dark age which setin following collapse of the Roman empire. 

Contemporary art and architecture reflected humanist thought. There was development of realism in art. Art was seen as imitation of life. Animals humans, nature all was carefully studied and wlocl depicted. Art focussed on physical aspects of mans existence. This can be seen is the words of Leonards-da-Vinci-such as last atinodnie supper, Monalisa. Michelangelo’s-Last Judgment, Fall of mans, Raphael’s Madonna. Humanism stressed on the fact that individuals of capable of shaping their own lives through means other than pursuit of power and money. This ideal was closely linked with the fact that human nature was money-sided. It was clearly reflected in Machiavellis prince which stressed the good and bad, both sides of each man. 

Humanist writings such as those of Patrarch Dante led to debate and discussion on matters, other than religion such as poetry, theatre, grammar, philosophy, Medicine geometry thought was the chief characteristics of defining feature of Renaissance. 

Q.6. Write a careful account of how the world appeared different to seventeenth century Europeans. 

Ans :- The renaissance spirit of enquiry and reasoning led to new scientific inventions the world appeared different. Contrary to accepting beliefs based on Christian motions and myths, Scientists began to use methods of questioning, observation and experimentation whereby many old view were exploded knowledges distinct from belief. E. g. the medieval theory that the earth was a sinful place, held immobile by the burden of sin, and the earth stood at the center of the universe around which other planets moved was proved to be incorrect. 

Scientists like Copernicus proved it was not the earth which was the center of universe. The Planets including the earth rotate around the sun. 

Copernicus’s work of sun centered system was confirmed by other scientists Galileo and Kepler. Issac Newton broke further ground by his theory of gravitation which proved that all heavenly bodies more according to the law of gravitation. Works of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Newton changed the conception of the human body. 

Harvey-gave a complete understanding of blood circulations our body. The Arabic numerals borrowed by the Arabs from India freed the Europeans from the use of abacus and Roman numeraly and simplified the keeping of accounts. 

The explorations by sailors like Vas Co Da Gama, Columbus, Magellen led to geographical discoveries of new lands (e.g. Americans) and new sea routes (e.g. route to India). Though their primary motive was gold, glory and God, these discoveries door changed mains idea of the word, revolutionized trade, started waves of colonization that have determined the course of world history ever since.

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Chapter 6 Displacing Indigenous People

 TEXTUAL QUESTION & ANSWER

Q.1. Comment on any points of difference between the native peoples of south and North America. 

Ans :- South and North America were home to many native cultures prior to their discovery and settlement Europeans, However, among, the natives of these continents there were many points of bae differences. 

( i ) The society of the natives of south America like. Incas of peru was hierarchical with the king representing the highest authority, followed by priests and shamans. Cultivators and craftsmen constituted the common people. 

( ii ) Basis of civilization of South America natives e.g. incas was agriculture.They terraced hill sides, and developed systems of drainage and irrigation. They grew corn and potato’s and domesticated Tiaras for, food and labour, state maintained cargo granaries which supported nobility, priests and the officials unlike the native South America, those of North America lived by agriculture. They cultivated vegetables and Maize but did not practice extensive agriculture and produce surpluses. They also ate fish and meat. They often hunted chiefly the bison, the wild buffalo that roamed the grasslands. 

( iii ) The native of South America maintained an empire. For example, the Incas had their capital at Monar Capoe. 

( iv ) Unlike the natives of North America the natives of South America believed in private ownership of resources. 

( v ) Unlike the natives of North America the natives of south America used gold and silver ritually but there was no great value placed on gold and silver. 

( vi ) Among the Incas of South America, every subject was required to speak. Quechua, the language of the court. In North America the natives spoke numerous languages. 

Q.2. Other than the use of English what other features of English economic and social life do you notice in the Nineteenth century USA? 

Ans :- It need be noted most of the early settlers in America were British either convicts or younger sons who world not inherit their fathers property and therefore were eager to own land in America and begin a new life. It would not be too far from the truth to call America a mini England. Features of similarity in economic and social life. 

( i ) Capitalist systems of economy growth, industrial towns and multiplication of factories. 

( ii ) Privatization of land. In Britain with the disclosures movement small farmers were reduced to landless lecturers or wage earners in factories, familiarly, in the USA the natives were induced and forced to move and deprived of their lands.

( iii ) To understate large sealer agriculture most areas were cleared and derived into forms. 

( iv ) Use of modern machines for agriculture and cultivation of crops according to market needs for sale and profit. 

( v ) Total disregard for ecology evident in cutting down of trees to gele layout farmy, and hunting of wild animals like ushers and mountains lions. To point extinction. 

( vi ) Similarly in food habits and dress. 

( vii ) Both countries were Christian People were either Roman Catholic or Protestations. 

 (viii) Class based society immense disparities and marked by social disparities example, both democratic rights and right to property ware only for the ‘white man’ is the nineteenth century America. 

( ix ) Both Britain and USA were undergoing phase of setting up. industries. While in England among other reasons industrial revolution happened because small peasants were using their land to big farmers and moving to jobs in factories, in North America, industries developed to manufacture railway equipment and to produce machinery which would make large scale farming easier. 

Q.3. What did the Frontier mean to the Americans? 

Ans :- For the Americans frontier did not mean any fixed boundary line, but at did mean ever changing and extending boundary line. 

America is known today came into existence at the end of the eighteenth century. At that time it occupied only a fraction of the land they now cover. After the American war of independence the people become free of the British yoke and over the next 100 years they extended their control over more territory, to reach there present size. 

In the east they were preached along the shores of the Atlantic ocean and their border was secure. If these was any frontier it lay to the west which they kept an extending by evicting the natives. Large areas were acquired by the USA by purchase. E.g. in the South from France (the Louisiana purchase) and from passia (Alpacas) an by war much of southern USA was won from Mexico. No consent was taken of the native examples the chenckee tribe. The natives were induced or forced to move after signing treaties selling their land. The prices paid were low and Dat there were instances where the American cheated natives by taking more land or paying less than promised. 

The ever changing frontier resulted in natives being pushed westward. Very often often land was given to the natives ‘is perpetuity’ they were moved again if any mineral, sil, gold was found on the lands. 

Where the natives resisted (1869 to 1890), the US army crushed them mercilessly. 

The constriction of railways was a factor is changing frontiers for it helped convert for fling areas. 

By 1892, the US continental expansion was complete. The area between the pecisic and Atlantic oceans was divided up into state there no longer remained the frontier that had pulled, European settler for many decades. 

Thus, for the Americans the frontier the western frontier was a shifting one and as it moved the natives were also forced to move back. 

Q.4. Why was the history of the Australian Natives people left out of history books? 

Ans :- Among the factors why the history of the Australian natives was left out of history books were :-

( i ) Australia was discovered by capturing whole is 1700 so it was assumed the history of Australia began with captain cook’s discovery. 

( ii ) After captain cook was killed by a native is Hawaii colonizers used the single incident to justify acts of violence against athens and no attempts were made to give information about natives. 

( iii ) The natives themselves while having a tradition of own language had no written script where by no written material was available an thuns for historians to refer to. 

( iv ) Most of the early settles is Australia were convicts who had been deported from England and when their jail terms ended were allowed to live as free people is Australia on condition that they did not return to Britain. With no recourse but to make life for themselves is a land so different from their own, they felt no hesitations about ejecting natives. This created an atmosphere of hatred and mutual suspicion, where by they were not written about.

( v ) The European settlers regarded the natives as ‘uncivilized and probably not worth witting about. 

( vi ) In the 19th and the 20th centuries nearly 90% of natives died by exposure to germs, by loss of their lands and resources and is battles against settlers. More over, the settlers had the attitude that the primitive man deserved to die out. So probably for this reasons they were not included is history books. 

( vii ) If Till 1974 fear or true dark people led Australians to keep non white out. This was reflected is the history books. If was only from 1974 that multi neutralism became the official policy of Australia and equal respect was given to native cultures. 

( viii ) It was after the lecture by the anthropologists WEH Stunner entitled “The great Australian silence” that people became conscious of silence of history any about the aborigines, and eager to understand natives not as anthropological curiosities but as communities with distinguish cultures. Through the book titled “why weren’t we told Henry rebuilds condemned the practice of writing history, as though it had begin with captains cooks discovery. 

ANSWER IN SHORT ESSAYS

Q.5. How satisfactory is a museum gallery display is explaining culture of a people? Give examples from your own experience. 

Ans :- Guidelines Museums are repositories of our ancient heritage. Through various archaeological remains, collection of crafts, art took, and pictures and literature they enable is to construct culture of a people who are lost to us today. They also help us to understand appreciate and learn from simple societies e.g. tribals among us.

Q.6. Imagine a counter in California is about 1830 between four people; a former African slaver a Chinese labourer, a German who had come out is the gold Rush, and a native of the Hopi tribe and narrate their conversation. 

Ans :- ( i ) African slaves :- It was only is 1861 -65 after the American circular slavery was abolished. 

( ii ) Chinese labourer :- In the class based society, way down is the social ladder both socially and economically. immigrated to America to help build railway lines. 

( iii ) German who had come out of golden Rush :- Rich big industrialists living is paltical house, high both in the social ladder and political.

( iv ) Native of Hopi tribe :- Land occupied by them taken over by Americans. 

Locked if in small area reservations a land with which called they had no earlier connection. Rebellion led by them, crushed mercilessly by them, crushed mercilessly by US army. Discouraged from the full exercise of their culture. Denied benefits of citizenship constant interference in their traditions.

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